Yi Ga-hwan (李家煥, 1742 – 24 March 1801) was a Confucian scholar of late Joseon who carried on the scholarship of his great-uncle Seongho Yi Ik. He was called "Scholar Jeong" (貞學士) by Jeongjo and was favored by him.1 He was a master of prose and was well versed in astronomy, mathematics and other fields. Unhindered in Confucian and Western learning alike, he was known as the foremost prodigy of his day.2 He was the maternal uncle of Yi Seung-hun, the first baptized Christian in Joseon. After discussions with Yi Byeok, one of the founders of the Joseon Catholic Church, he developed a favorable view of Catholicism and for a time took a deep interest in it. However, given that he took the lead in persecuting Catholics after the Sinhae persecution of 1791 and that he had no baptismal name, it is unclear whether he formally entered the Church.3
One of Yi Ga-hwan's great-uncles (從祖父)4, Yi Jam (李潛, 1660–1706), was executed for attacking the Noron faction during the reign of Sukjong.5 Because of this family history, the family was a constant target of attacks by the Noron. Although he was regarded as the successor to Chae Je-gong (蔡濟恭) and his political standing was high, he suffered many political misfortunes due to attacks by the Soin faction, internal strife within the Namin faction, and his troubled relationship with Catholicism.6 After the death of Jeongjo, who had defended him, he was tortured during the Sinyu persecution because of his reputation as a believer in Catholicism, and died in prison.5
Life
Early years
He was born in the Hwanghwa Ward (皇華坊) of the western part of Hanseong.7 His clan seat was Yeoju. His courtesy name was Jeongjo (廷藻), and his pen names were Geumdae (錦帶) and Jeonghon (貞軒). His father was Yi Yong-hyu, and his mother was the daughter of Ryu Heon-jang. Yi Ga-hwan was the maternal uncle of Yi Seung-hun, the first Korean baptized Catholic. He studied under his great-uncle Yi Ik (Seongho) and was recognized as a great scholar who carried on the tradition of the Seongho school. Among his academic friends were many early Catholic believers, including Jeong Yak-yong, Yi Byeok and Kwon Chol-sin. Through his close association with An Jeong-bok and others of the Namin faction, he also worked to study new learning, including Western learning.
Yi Ga-hwan was known as the foremost prodigy of his age. Jeong Yak-yong, who was himself among the prodigies of that era, once used the expression that he "seemed almost like a spirit."89 Hwang Sa-yeong, who passed the jinsa examination at the age of 17 and was a talented student, also described Yi Ga-hwan by saying, "There was no book he had not read, and his memory was like that of a god."10 Jeongjo, who styled himself a scholar-king, admired Yi Ga-hwan's erudition and favored him, and regarded him as the successor to Chae Je-gong as leader of the Namin faction.11 He passed the jinsa examination in 1771 (47th year of Yeongjo) and the civil service examination in 1777 (1st year of Jeongjo). After holding various offices, he rose to become Grand Academician (大司成), Governor of Gaegyeong (開城留守) and Minister of Public Works (工曹判書).
Family history
His tenth-generation ancestor Yi Gye-son served as Minister of War (兵曹判書), and his fifth-generation ancestor Yi Sang-ui reached the rank of Left Councilor of the State Council (議政府左贊成).12 Yi Ga-hwan's grandfather Yi Ha-jin served as Director of the Hongmun Academy (弘文館提學), but in 1680, during the Gyeongsin Remedy, when the Soin faction came to power, he was exiled and died two years later. The Veritable Records of Sunjo record that "at that time he became depressed with indignation and died," a death so unjust that it is recorded as such.13 Yi Ga-hwan's great-uncle (從祖父)4 Yi Jam, in 1706 (32nd year of Sukjong), submitted a memorial attacking the Noron in order to protect Crown Prince Gyeongjong, and was put to death.
Yi Ik (Seongho), a representative scholar of Silhak in late Joseon who witnessed the tragic death of his elder brother Yi Jam, gave up official life for the rest of his life and retired to the area of a lake called Seongho near Cheomseongchon in Ansan, where his ancestral graves were located, devoting himself to study and the training of disciples.14 Yi Ga-hwan's father, Yi Yong-hyu, did not take the higher civil service examination after passing the jinsa examination. This was not only because he had no ambition for office, but also because, owing to his family history, his house was the one the Noron most disliked among the Namin, so there was no possibility of passing as long as the Noron were in power.13 When Yi Ga-hwan took office during the reign of Jeongjo, the ruling Noron branded him a dangerous figure because of his family background, and they continually attacked him thereafter.
Relationship with Catholicism
After his nephew Yi Seung-hun, who was the first Korean to be baptized in Beijing, returned in 1784 (8th year of Jeongjo) with many Catholic books, Yi Byeok, Kwon Chol-sin, Jeong Yak-yong and others who associated with Yi Ga-hwan became Catholics and were influenced by them to take up the Heavenly Learning. A man named Yi Byeok introduced Catholicism to Yi Ga-hwan and urged him to join. Yi Byeok made efforts to bring Yi Ga-hwan into the Church.15 Because Yi Ga-hwan was leading the Namin, his entry into the Church would have a considerable influence among the Namin.16 However, Yi Ga-hwan, who opposed Catholicism, engaged in a fierce debate with Yi Byeok, and after the discussion he instead came to hold a favorable view of Catholicism.6 He borrowed and eagerly read Western introductory works and books such as the Seongnyeon Gwangik (聖年廣益) from Yi Byeok.1 He frequently associated with Catholics, cooperated in church affairs and worked diligently, to the point that his opponents called him the leader of a heretical teaching (邪敎).3 However, given that he had no baptismal name and other such factors, it is unclear whether he formally entered the Church.3
When the suppression of Catholicism began, he suspended his study of its doctrines. After the Sinhae persecution of 1791, while serving as Magistrate of Gwangju, he composed and spread a song-poem titled Gyeongsega (警世歌), which denounced Catholicism, and actively persecuted the faith.15 During the Eulmyo persecution of 1795, when the Qing dynasty priest Zhou Wenmo secretly entered the country, he was framed and demoted to Magistrate of Chungju.1718 However, while serving as Magistrate of Chungju, he continued to persecute and reject Catholics, and he strove to remove the pretext for the attacks made against him.15
Sinyu persecution
Political retribution
After the death of Jeongjo, when Sunjo ascended the throne at the age of 11, the Noron Byeokpa seized power through the regency of Queen Jeongsun, the second wife of Yeongjo.1920 Thereafter, the Byeokpa, moving Queen Jeongsun, began a purge of the Namin and the Sirpa under the pretext of strictly prohibiting Catholic learning.2122 On 10 January 1801, Queen Jeongsun issued an edict through a royal instruction on the strict prohibition of Catholicism,23 ordering the nationwide punishment of violators under the law of treason.24 Queen Jeongsun had taken the lead in removing Crown Prince Sado2526 and had opposed Jeongjo's accession, so after Jeongjo ascended the throne her family declined, and her elder brother Kim Gwi-ju died in exile, and she was thus an enemy of Jeongjo.27 The aim of this Queen Jeongsun was to drive out of government the Namin forces that had grown during the reign of Jeongjo and to exterminate them so they could never recover. The late King Jeongjo, in order to check the ruling Noron Byeokpa, had employed the Namin and carried out the policy of Tangpyeong. Since the progressive young Namin favored by Jeongjo had an interest in Western learning and many of them were close to Catholicism, this provided a good pretext.
Purge of the Namin
The top priority was the removal of three men favored by the late King Jeongjo: Yi Ga-hwan, Kwon Chol-sin and Jeong Yak-yong.30 This was because Yi Ga-hwan and Kwon Chol-sin were leading the Namin after the death of Chae Je-gong, and Jeong Yak-yong was the next generation leader who would guide the Namin. Yi Ga-hwan in particular had to be killed, because of the long-standing enmity between his family and the Noron Byeokpa dating back to his ancestors. Yi Ga-hwan, whom the Noron most disliked,31 was the most erudite man of his day, his learning unhindered across both Eastern and Western studies, and he had held important posts while enjoying the favor of Jeongjo, who had indicated during his lifetime, through the Ohoe Yeongyo (五晦筵敎), that he intended to appoint Yi Ga-hwan as prime minister.32 The Noron Byeokpa knew that Yi Ga-hwan had renounced Catholicism and taken the lead in persecuting it immediately after the Jinsan incident of 1791, but this was not important. What the Noron Byeokpa wanted was not evidence that Yi Ga-hwan had abandoned Catholicism, but his life.33 Yi Ga-hwan and Kwon Chol-sin were severely tortured and, after fasting for six to seven days, died in prison on 24 March 1801 (1st year of Sunjo).34 After their deaths, their bodies were beheaded and left in the street.35
Legacy
He was a great scholar who was called "Scholar Jeong" by Jeongjo.1 As the leading figure of the Sisa faction of the Namin faction who carried on the legacy of Chae Je-gong, he was also skilled in prose and excelled in calligraphy.36 He was well versed in astronomy and mathematics, and reached a level of precision sufficient to calculate solar and lunar eclipses and the angles at which the ecliptic and equator intersect, and to present calculations of the circumference and diameter of the Earth in diagrammatic form.15 During the Sinyu persecution he left behind the words, "When I die, the lineage of mathematics in this country will be cut off."1
Jeongjo valued his talents and appointed him Grand Academician of the Sungkyunkwan to teach Confucian students, but he was unable to achieve his aims because of attacks by the Noron. In addition, the Silhak scholar Jeong Yak-yong was deeply influenced by his scholarship. His writings included the Geumdae Gwanjip (錦帶館集), which no longer survives. The collections of his writings that remain today are the Simun Choso (詩文艸) in four volumes and four books, and the Geumdae Simun Choso (錦帶詩文艸) in two volumes and one book, as well as the Dongpae Nakso Sokjip (東稗洛誦續集), a collection in the form of records, the Gijeongo (箕田考), and the Geumdae Jeonchaek (錦帶殿策), which have been transmitted.6
Career
1771 (47th year of Yeongjo), age 30: Passed both the lesser examination, the Saengwon and Jinsa examinations, and became a jinsa37
1777 (1st year of Jeongjo), age 36: Passed the civil service examination with a second-class rank (乙科)38
1778 (2nd year of Jeongjo), age 37: Ranked first in composition of civil officials' essays and rose to 6th rank (junior official grade)
1780 (4th year of Jeongjo), age 39: Magistrate of Bin, junior 6th rank
1781 (5th year of Jeongjo), age 40: Junior 5th rank Junior Secretary of the Ministry of Rites, senior 4th rank Junior Censor of the Office of the Inspector-General
1785 (9th year of Jeongjo), age 44: Senior 3rd rank Vice Minister of the Ministry of War (senior official), senior 3rd rank Grand Remonstrator of the Office of Remonstrance, senior 3rd rank Eastern Chief Secretary of the Royal Secretariat
1787 (11th year of Jeongjo), age 46: Senior 3rd rank Magistrate of Jeongju
1791 (15th year of Jeongjo), age 50: Junior 2nd rank Magistrate of Gwangju
1792 (16th year of Jeongjo), age 51: Senior 3rd rank Grand Academician of the Sungkyunkwan, junior 2nd rank Governor of Gaegyeong, senior 3rd rank Left Chief Secretary and Right Chief Secretary of the Royal Secretariat
1793 (17th year of Jeongjo), age 52: Junior 2nd rank Vice Minister of Justice, Grand Academician of the Sungkyunkwan
1794 (18th year of Jeongjo), age 53: Senior 3rd rank Left Chief Secretary of the Royal Secretariat
1795 (19th year of Jeongjo), age 54: Senior 2nd rank Minister of Public Works, senior 3rd rank Magistrate of Chungju
1797 (21st year of Jeongjo), age 56: Senior 2nd rank Chief Commissioner of the Five Military Commands Headquarters, senior 2nd rank Mayor of Hanseong
1800 (24th year of Jeongjo), age 59: Junior 3rd rank Senior Commander of the Guard; after the death of Jeongjo he was named by the Noron Byeokpa forces as the chief of Western learning and impeached
1801 (1st year of Sunjo), age 60: Imprisoned in the second month, interrogated, and died in prison after a hunger strike on 24 March
Family relations
- Great-grandfather: Yi Myeong-jin (李明鎭, 1641 – 1696), posthumous Left Chief Secretary
- Biological great-grandfather: Yi Ha-jin (李夏鎭, 1628 – 1682), Vice Minister of Revenue, biological father of Yi Chim and Yi Ik
- Grandfather: Yi Chim (李沈, 1671 – 1713), posthumous Vice Minister of Personnel, full elder brother of Seongho Yi Ik (李瀷, 1681 – 1763), adopted as son of his uncle Yi Myeong-jin
- Father: Yi Yong-hyu (李用休, 1708 – 1782), pen name Hyehwan (惠寰). Saengwon, posthumous Minister of Personnel
- Mother: Ryu of Jinju (柳), daughter of Councilor Ryu Heon-jang (柳憲章)
- Subject: Yi Ga-hwan (李家煥, 1742 – 1801)
- Wife: Jeong of Haeju (鄭氏), daughter of Minister Jeong Un-yu (鄭運維)
- Son: Yi Jae-jeok (李載績, ? – 1811), adopted. Son of Yi Gu-hwan (李九煥, 1731 – 1784), a Saengwon and nephew-in-the-line of the great-uncle, grandson of Seongho Yi Ik
- Daughter-in-law: Yi of Jeonju (全州李), daughter of Yi Ban (李磐)
- First grandson: Yi Si-seok (李是_)39
- Great-grandson 1: Yi Chi-ryong (李治龍)
- Great-great-grandson: Yi Jong-heon (李鍾憲, 1851 – 1898), adopted. Son of Yi Bang-yeong (李邦永), great-grandson of Yi Chang-hwan (李昌煥)
- Great-great-great-grandson 1: Yi Deok-gu (李德九), succeeded to the line. Registered as the eldest grandson of Yi Jam (李潛, 1660 – 1706)
- Great-great-great-grandson 2: Yi Seok-gu (李錫九)
- Great-great-great-great-grandson: Yi Pil-gi (李弼琦)
- Great-great-great-great-great-grandson: Yi O-hyeong (李旿衡)
- Great-grandson 2: Yi Chi-bong (李治鳳), succeeded to the line. Adopted as son of Yi Si-al (李是钀), grandson of Yi Gu-hwan
- Second grandson: Yi Si-ja (李是鎡)
- Third grandson: Yi Si-hyeon (李是鑦)
- Eldest daughter: Yi of Yeoju (李氏, 1779 – 1790)
- Eldest son-in-law: Kwon Gu (權耈), descendant of Kwon Si (權諰, 1604 – 1672), pen name Tanong (炭翁)
- Second daughter: Yi of Yeoju
- Second son-in-law: Yi Bang-eok (李龐億), son of Yi Gi-yang (李基讓, 1744 – 1802), pen name Bokam (茯菴)
- Eldest brother-in-law: Heo Man (許晚)
- Second brother-in-law: Yi Dong-uk (李東郁), Magistrate of Uiju, clan seat Pyeongchang (平昌)
- Nephew (through sister): Yi Seung-hun (李承薰, 1756 – 1801), the first Korean Catholic to be baptized
Works in which Yi Ga-hwan appears
Writings
- Gijeongo (《기전고》)
- Geumdae Yugo (《금대유고》)
- Mulbo (《물보》)
Notes