Naqsh-e Rostam (Persian: نقش رستم, lit. 'Mural of Rostam', Persian: [ˌnæɣʃeɾosˈtæm]) is an ancient archeological site and necropolis located about 13 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars province, Iran.
Built date unknownLast edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:42 PM
Naqsh-e Rostam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty (c. 550–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus.3
This page is based on “Naqsh-e Rostam” from English Wikipedia, (r1376057269) CC BY-SA 4.0 used under the license. The original authors are listed in its page history.
Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sasanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sasanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in AD 260, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.4
Monuments
Elamite rock reliefs
The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to the Elamite period, although it has been almost completely erased. Originally occupying a space 7 by 2.5 meters in area, the relief was carved over in the Sasanian period to create the 'grandee' or 'audience' relief of Bahram II, leaving only faint traces of the pre-existing Elamite composition. One figure from the pre-existing relief, likely a king of the Neo-Elamite period, was integrated into the newer Sasanian composition, appearing on the far right-hand side of the relief alongside later depictions of Sasanian officials. To the left of the preserved figure, beneath the busts of the Sasanian officials, are two partially-preserved figures sitting on thrones of coiled snakes, and on the far left side of the relief is the preserved head of a female figure wearing a mural crown.5
Though it is severely damaged, another relief near the investiture scene of Narseh, which depicts a faint image of a man with unusual headgear, has been tentatively dated to the Elamite period.6
Achaemenid tombs
Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The four tombs are identical in terms of design and accompanying relief decoration. In the upper register each tomb includes an elaborate relief depicting the king holding a bow and paying homage to a fire altar and a figure emerging from a winged disk, often identified as the Zoroastrianfravahar. The king and the altar stand on an elevated platform supported by two rows of 15 figures, each identified by a short inscription as representing a different province within the empire, with minor differences in their attire to correspond with the national dress of the corresponding region. Two other figures stand next to the base of the platform, and a further six figures stand in niches carved along the edges of the scene (three on either side). The wider middle register depicts a faux-portico of an Achaemenid palace, with double-protome bull's head capitals. The bottom register is left bare.7
Tomb of Darius the Great
The tomb of Darius is the only tomb to include an extensive inscription on its facade, where it appears to the left of the king, divided into two main parts referred to as DNa and DNb, allowing it to be confidently attributed to Darius, who refers to himself by name within the text of the inscriptions. It is assumed to be the oldest of the four, and presumably served as the model for the three subsequent Achaemenid tombs cut at the site.8
Other tombs
The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486–465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423–404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.3
Darius I inscription
An inscription by Darius I, from c.490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign.9 Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are specifically listed, which formed the largest empire during antiquity. His empire encompassed Macedon and Thrace in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, up to Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley.10
Darius I inscription
(DNa inscription)
DNf inscription.
There are various and contradictory reports about how this inscription was discovered. According to Mrs. Khadija Totunchi, she took a photo of this inscription in 2017. But she did not find a suitable person to translate and read the inscription. Also, according to Ebrahim Rustaei, in 2018, in cooperation with Abdul Majid Arfai, he presented an article about the inscription to the International Conference on History and Culture of Southern Iran (Historical Persia), in which a reading of the inscription was presented. However, this reading is very basic and has many flaws. But finally, the DNf petroglyph, which had been hidden in the shade and under algae and sediments for 2500 years, was officially and scientifically recorded by Mojtaba Doroodi and Soheil Delshad in February 2019.11
Babylonian Transliteration: 1- [mx-x-x(-x) LÚ
pa-id-di-iš-ḫu]-ri-iš ˹a˺-˹na˺ m da-a-ri-i̭a-˹muš˺ LUGAL i-GA-ir-ra-bi
Translation (based on the Babylonian version): [Personal Name, Pati]schorian, invokes blessing upon Darius the King.12
Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" (Zendān-e Solaymān).
Several theories exist regarding the purpose of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht structure.13
Sasanian reliefs
Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sasanian era.
The most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands Kirtir, the mūbadān mūbad ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran.14
In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:15
I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.
The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy. The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal's head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah.16
In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita.
Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), google books
Cotterell, Arthur (ed), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations, 1993, Penguin, ISBN 0670826995
Archived 2011-02-05 at the Wayback Machine E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications 70, University of Chicago Press, 1970, ISBN 0-226-62170-7 ↩
Naqsh-e Rostam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty (c. 550–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a .
Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sasanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sasanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in AD 260, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.4
Monuments
Elamite rock reliefs
The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to the Elamite period, although it has been almost completely erased. Originally occupying a space 7 by 2.5 meters in area, the relief was carved over in the Sasanian period to create the 'grandee' or 'audience' relief of Bahram II, leaving only faint traces of the pre-existing Elamite composition. One figure from the pre-existing relief, likely a king of the Neo-Elamite period, was integrated into the newer Sasanian composition, appearing on the far right-hand side of the relief alongside later depictions of Sasanian officials. To the left of the preserved figure, beneath the busts of the Sasanian officials, are two partially-preserved figures sitting on thrones of coiled snakes, and on the far left side of the relief is the preserved head of a female figure wearing a mural crown.5
Though it is severely damaged, another relief near the investiture scene of Narseh, which depicts a faint image of a man with unusual headgear, has been tentatively dated to the Elamite period.6
Achaemenid tombs
Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The four tombs are identical in terms of design and accompanying relief decoration. In the upper register each tomb includes an elaborate relief depicting the king holding a bow and paying homage to a fire altar and a figure emerging from a winged disk, often identified as the Zoroastrianfravahar. The king and the altar stand on an elevated platform supported by two rows of 15 figures, each identified by a short inscription as representing a different province within the empire, with minor differences in their attire to correspond with the national dress of the corresponding region. Two other figures stand next to the base of the platform, and a further six figures stand in niches carved along the edges of the scene (three on either side). The wider middle register depicts a faux-portico of an Achaemenid palace, with double-protome bull's head capitals. The bottom register is left bare.7
Tomb of Darius the Great
The tomb of Darius is the only tomb to include an extensive inscription on its facade, where it appears to the left of the king, divided into two main parts referred to as DNa and DNb, allowing it to be confidently attributed to Darius, who refers to himself by name within the text of the inscriptions. It is assumed to be the oldest of the four, and presumably served as the model for the three subsequent Achaemenid tombs cut at the site.8
Other tombs
The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I (c. 486–465 BC), Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), and Darius II (c. 423–404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.3
Darius I inscription
An inscription by Darius I, from c.490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign.9 Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are specifically listed, which formed the largest empire during antiquity. His empire encompassed Macedon and Thrace in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, up to Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley.10
Darius I inscription
(DNa inscription)
DNf inscription.
There are various and contradictory reports about how this inscription was discovered. According to Mrs. Khadija Totunchi, she took a photo of this inscription in 2017. But she did not find a suitable person to translate and read the inscription. Also, according to Ebrahim Rustaei, in 2018, in cooperation with Abdul Majid Arfai, he presented an article about the inscription to the International Conference on History and Culture of Southern Iran (Historical Persia), in which a reading of the inscription was presented. However, this reading is very basic and has many flaws. But finally, the DNf petroglyph, which had been hidden in the shade and under algae and sediments for 2500 years, was officially and scientifically recorded by Mojtaba Doroodi and Soheil Delshad in February 2019.11
Babylonian Transliteration: 1- [mx-x-x(-x) LÚ
pa-id-di-iš-ḫu]-ri-iš ˹a˺-˹na˺ m da-a-ri-i̭a-˹muš˺ LUGAL i-GA-ir-ra-bi
Translation (based on the Babylonian version): [Personal Name, Pati]schorian, invokes blessing upon Darius the King.12
Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" (Zendān-e Solaymān).
Several theories exist regarding the purpose of the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht structure.13
Sasanian reliefs
Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sasanian era.
The most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands Kirtir, the mūbadān mūbad ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran.14
In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:15
I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.
The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy. The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal's head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah.16
In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita.
Canepa, Matthew P., "Topographies of Power, Theorizing the Visual, Spatial and Ritual Contexts of Rock Reliefs in Ancient Iran", in Harmanşah (2014), google books
Cotterell, Arthur (ed), The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations, 1993, Penguin, ISBN 0670826995
Archived 2011-02-05 at the Wayback Machine E. F. Schmidt, Persepolis III: The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments, Oriental Institute Publications 70, University of Chicago Press, 1970, ISBN 0-226-62170-7 ↩