Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jawad (Arabic: مُحَمَّدٌ بْنُ عَلِيٍّ ٱلْجَوَادُ, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Jawād, c. 8 April 811 – c. 29 November 835), also known as Muhammad al-Taqi, was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the ninth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father Ali al-Rida.
Born~Died Apr 12, 811 ~ Nov 25, 835Last edited Oct 15, 2026, 2:47 PM
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jawad (Arabic: مُحَمَّدٌ بْنُ عَلِيٍّ ٱلْجَوَادُ, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Jawād, c. 8 April 811 – c. 29 November 835), also known as Muhammad al-Taqi, was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the ninth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father Ali al-Rida. Born in Medina around 810, al-Jawad was the only child of al-Rida, the eighth Imam. When al-Rida left Medina after being summoned to Khorasan by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun to assume the position of heir apparent, he did not take any of his family members with him. Al-Jawad was only four years old when his father reluctantly left Medina. Therefore, al-Jawad spent most of his childhood away from his father. Al-Rida's appointment provoked strong opposition among the Abbasids in Baghdad, which forced al-Ma'mun to return to the capital Baghdad in 818. On the way back, al-Rida suddenly fell ill and died mysteriously in Tus, likely poisoned by order of al-Ma'mun as he made concessions to the opposition.
Upon the death of al-Rida, the succession of his only son al-Jawad to the Imamate at the age of seven became controversial, but most recognized his knowledge and religious authority. At the time, some instead turned for leadership to al-Jawad's uncle, Ahmad ibn Musa, and some others joined the Waqifites, but the succession of al-Jawad did not create any permanent divisions. Shia sources often justify the Imamate of the young al-Jawad by drawing parallels with Jesus and John the Baptist, both of whom in the Quran received their prophetic missions in childhood. Like most of his predecessors, al-Jawad kept aloof from politics and engaged in religious teaching, while organizing the affairs of Shia Muslims through the network of representatives (Wokala) that his grandfather and the seventh Imam, , had established. The extensive correspondence of al-Jawad with his followers on questions of has been preserved in Shia sources, and numerous pithy religio-ethical sayings are attributed to him.
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In 830, al-Jawad was summoned to Baghdad by al-Ma'mun, who married his daughter Umm Fadhl to the former. This marriage, however, was to be without issue and might have been infelicitous. His successor, Ali al-Hadi, was already born to Samana, a freed slave (umm walad). In 833, al-Ma'mun died and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, who summoned al-Jawad again to Baghdad in 835 and hosted him and his wife, possibly to investigate any links between al-Jawad and new Alid revolts. Al-Jawad died in the same year at the age of about twenty-five. All Sunni sources are silent about the manner of his death, while Shia authorities are unanimous that he was poisoned by his disaffected wife, Umm al-Fadl, at the instigation of her uncle, caliph al-Mu'tasim. Al-Jawad is buried next to his grandfather in the Al-Kazimiyya Mosque, a holy site in Shia Islam.
Titles
Muhammad ibn Ali, the ninth of the Twelve Imams, is occasionally known in Shia sources as al-Taqi (Arabic: التقى, lit. 'the pious'),1 but more commonly as al-Jawad (Arabic: الجواد, lit. 'the generous') for his munificence.2 The Imam is cited in the Shia hadith literature as Abu Ja'far al-Thani (Arabic: ابو جعفر الثاني, lit. 'Abu Ja'far, the second'),3 with the title Abu Ja'far reserved for his predecessor, Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 732), the fifth of the Twelve Imams.4 His kunya is Abu Ali (Arabic: ابو علي),4 though he was also known by his contemporaries as Ibn al-Rida (Arabic: ابن الرضا, lit. 'son of al-Rida') because he was the only child of Ali al-Rida.3 Muhammad is also known as Javad al-A'imma (lit. 'generous among the Imams'), a devotional title reflecting his reputation for generosity and benevolence.
Life
Birth (c. 810)
Muhammad al-Jawad was born in Medina,53 or in a village near Medina founded by his grandfather, Musa al-Kazim (d. 799).67 Sources seem to agree that he was born 195 AH (810–811) but the exact date is disputed.3 Most Twelver sources record mid-Ramadan 195 AH (mid-June 811) as the birthday of Muhammad but Ibn Ayyas (d. 1522/1524) favors 10 Rajab 195 AH (8 April 811). This latter date agrees with Ziyarat al-Nahiya al-Muqaddasa, a supplication attributed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, the last of the Twelve Imams.3 It is this date that the Shia celebrate annually.38 His father Ali al-Rida, the eighth of the Twelve Imams, was a descendant of Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661) and Fatima (d. 632), who were the cousin and the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, respectively. Most records agree that the mother of Muhammad al-Jawad was a freed slave (umm walad) from Nubia,5 though her name is given differently in sources as Sabika or Durra (sometimes Khayzuran).36 She might have belonged to the family of Maria al-Qibtiyya, a freed slave of the prophet and the mother of his son Ibrahim, who died in childhood.36
Reign of al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833)
Marriage (c. 817)
Muhammad stayed behind in Medina when his father al-Rida traveled to Merv in Khorasan at the request of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833).9 The caliph designated al-Rida as the heir apparent in 202 AH (817),9 and also changed the official Abbasid color of black to green, possibly to signify this reconciliation between the Abbasids and the Alids.710 To form a political alliance,11 the caliph also married one of his daughters, named Umm Habib,4 to al-Rida in 202 AH (817) and promised another daughter, named Umm al-Fadl,12 to Muhammad, who was still a minor at the time,139 aged about seven.12 Among Sunni historians, al-Tabari (d. 923), Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur (d. 893), and Ibn al-Athir al-Jazari (d. 1232–1233) agree on this report.14 It is likely that Muhammad was absent from the ceremony,415 even though Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi (d. 1169) relates that he visited his father in Merv in 202 AH (817).4 In contrast, the Sunni historian al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071)16 and the Shia-leaning historians Al-Masudi (d. 956)12 and Ya'qubi (d. 897–898)6 place the betrothal of Muhammad after the death of al-Rida in 204 AH (819), following the return of al-Ma'mun to his capital Baghdad. In particular, al-Mas'udi in his Ithbat al-wassiya writes that al-Ma'mun summoned Muhammad to Baghdad, settled him near his palace, and later decided to marry him to his daughter, Umm Fadl,12 whose given name was Zaynab.63 According to al-Baghdadi, Muhammad was about nine years old at the time of this betrothal.16
Death of his father (c. 818)
Ali al-Rida was a prominent Alid, a descendant of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The Alids were viewed as rivals for the caliphate by the Abbasids, who were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, a paternal uncle of Muhammad.17 The appointment of the Alid al-Rida by the Abbasid caliph thus invoked strong opposition, particularly among the members of the Abbasid dynasty and the Iraqi supporters of Abbasid legitimism.713 These revolted and installed al-Ma'mun's uncle, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi, as an anti-caliph in Baghdad.131819 The caliph and his entourage thus left Khorasan for Baghdad in 203 AH (818),15 accompanied by al-Rida.719 The latter died shortly in Tus after a brief illness,20 possibly after being poisoned.1315 The death of al-Rida followed the assassination of al-Fadl ibn Sahl (d. 818), the Persian vizier of al-Ma'mun,13 who had become a divisive figure.21 Both deaths are linked in Shia sources to al-Ma'mun and viewed as concessions to the Arab party to smooth his return to Iraq.212215 Modern scholars similarly tend to suspect the caliph in the death of al-Rida.7232120 After returning to Baghdad in 204 AH (819),246 al-Ma'mun reversed his pro-Shia policies,151325 and restored the traditional black color of the Abbasids.13 Muhammad was about seven years old when his father died.6 There are multiple Shia reports that he told others about the death of his father before the news arrived in Medina,26 and some traditions indicate that he was miraculously present in the burial of al-Rida in Khurasan and prayed over his body.427
Summoned to Baghdad (c. 819)
Soon after arriving in Baghdad in 204 AH (819),24 al-Ma'mun summoned the young Muhammad who then stayed at the court of the caliph.28 The betrothal of Muhammad and Umm Fadl or its proposal was apparently opposed by some of the Abbasids,296 reportedly because of the dark complexion of Muhammad.6 An account of their protests appears in the biographical Kitab al-Irshad by the Twelver theologian Al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 1022),30 though the Islamicist Shona F. Wardrop suspects that it may actually refer to the designation of al-Rida as the heir apparent.31 In any case, al-Mufid suggests that the opposition actually feared the political rise of Muhammad similar to his father al-Rida,4 and the view of the Islamicist Wilferd Madelung is similar.6 Those opposed to the marriage arranged for a public debate where the chief judge Yahya ibn Aktam interrogated the young Muhammad with difficult theological questions to which he answered correctly.34 An account of this is given by al-Mas'udi,32 but the seventeenth-century hadith collection Bihar al-Anwar adds that Yahya also presented Muhammad with provocative questions about the status of the early caliphs Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644), including an alleged prophetic tradition that compares the two caliphs with the archangels Gabriel and Michael. These claims al-Jawad refuted in mild language.33 The attribution of this latter exchange to Muhammad al-Jawad is, however, uncertain since a similar exchange between al-Ma'mun and some Sunni scholars is described by the tenth-century hadith collection Uyoun Akhbar Al-Ridha.34 At any rate, it is at the end of this assembly that al-Ma'mun formally married his daughter to Muhammad, according to al-Mas'udi and al-Mufid.354 This episode is thus viewed by the Twelvers as evidence of the exceptional knowledge of Muhammad al-Jawad.3
Kitab al-Irshad implies that Muhammad returned to Medina after this episode in Baghdad.36 By some accounts, however, he stayed in Baghdad for about eight years, primarily engaged in teaching, before returning to Medina with his family after the death of al-Ma'mun in 218 AH (833).3729 This is viewed as house arrest by the historian Jassim M. Hussain,38 citing a report by al-Mas'udi.39 There is not much known about this period of his life.40
Summoned to Baghdad (830)
The marriage of al-Jawad to the daughter of the caliph was consummated in 215 AH (830),15 when al-Ma'mun invited the former to Baghdad from Medina.63 The couple stayed there until the Hajj season (January 831) when they returned to Medina after completing the Hajj ritual.316 Possibly hoping to blunt the Shia opposition through al-Jawad,41 the caliph is said to have displayed much affection towards the young man.329 By marrying his daughter to al-Jawad, the Twelver scholar Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai (d. 1981) suggests that al-Ma'mun might have wanted to keep a close watch on him from both outside and within his household.42 Hussain similarly suggests that al-Ma'mun intended to monitor al-Jawad and divide the Shia opposition,38 hoping thus to mitigate their revolts, including some fresh uprisings in Qom.43 This view is rejected by the historian Moojan Momen, who says that al-Ma'mun might have had little to fear from the revolts in Qom.29 Medoff believes that al-Ma'mun pursued a policy of simultaneously appeasing and containing pro-Alid groups,3 while Wardrop writes that the marriage was intended to discourage the Shia from revolution.44 Hussain and Esmail Baghestani say that the marriage did not win the Shia support for al-Ma'mun, nor did it stop the Shia revolts.414
Reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842)
Caliph al-Ma'mun died in 218 AH (833) and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, who continued the policy of his predecessor in simultaneously appeasing and containing pro-Alid groups, according to Medoff.3 It was perhaps to further this policy that al-Mu'tasim summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in 220 AH (835) and hosted him and his wife.3 The departure of al-Jawad was apparently facilitated by Abd al-Malik al-Zayyat at the behest of the caliph.45 An exception here is the account of al-Mas'udi which does not explicitly state that al-Jawad was summoned by al-Mu'tasim.46 At any rate, al-Jawad died there in the same year, some ten months after his arrival,45 at the age of about twenty-five.296 During this short window, Shia sources accuse al-Mu'tasim of multiple attempts to discredit al-Jawad and finally murdering him.45 This alleged hostility of al-Mu'tasim may have been compounded by a recent wave of Shia revolts in Qom and in Taliqan, even though there is no evidence that al-Jawad was involved in them.47 One such attempt against al-Jawad was prevented by one of his supporters, Ahmad ibn Hammad al-Marwazi, who was nevertheless an advisor to Ibn Abi Dawud, the influential qadi. The caliph apparently abandoned his plan to dishonor al-Jawad by parading him while intoxicated after Ahmad convinced the qadi about the futility of this plan, saying that the ire of the caliph would only strengthen the loyalty of Imamites for al-Jawad. The qadi passed on the advice to the caliph.48 A different account by Ibn Awrama, quoted in Bihar al-anwar and Manaqib, describes how al-Jawad unmasked false witnesses who had accused him of plotting against the caliph, though the miraculous ending of this account weakens its historical weight.49 Another account is narrated by Zurqan, a sahib of the qadi Ibn Abi Dawud: The caliph is said to have solicited and preferred the judicial ruling of al-Jawad about amputating the hand of a thief in the presence of other scholars. This infuriated the qadi, who later visited the caliph and warned him about inadvertently bolstering the public support for al-Jawad as an alternative to al-Mu'tasim. This then set in motion the plot to poison al-Jawad.50
Personal life
Similar to his predecessors, al-Jawad lived modestly and gave to the poor generously, according to Dwight M. Donaldson (d. 1976).51 Baghestani adds that al-Jawad gave charity at the beginning of every month and interceded with the officials on behalf of the people.4 His arranged marriage in 215 AH (830) to Umm al-Fadl did not result in any children.6 There are other indications that this marriage was not particularly felicitous, including reports that she complained to al-Ma'mun about her marriage,3 specifically about her husband taking a concubine,52 but the caliph rejected her complaint.652 Umm al-Fadl is also commonly held responsible in Shia sources for the death of al-Jawad in 220 AH (835) by poisoning.36 Ali al-Hadi, the successor of al-Jawad, was born to Samana, a freed slave (umm walad) of Maghrebian (North African) origin,29 circa 212 AH (828).7 Other children of al-Jawad were Musa al-Mubarraqa and two or four daughters.3 In some genealogical books, other sons have been named but there is no mention of them in the earliest sources. The daughters of al-Jawad are named differently in the sources. Here, al-Mufid gives the names Fatima and Amama, while the biographical source Dala'il al-imama lists Khadija, Hakima, and Umm Kulthum. The Sunni theologian Fakhr Razi (d. 1209) adds Behjat and Barihe to these names, saying that none of them left any descendants. The children of al-Jawad were all born to Samana.4
Personal life and Family
Classical genealogical consensus
According to mainstream Shi'i and Sunni biographical works, including Shaykh al-Mufid's Kitab al-Irshad, Muhammad al-Jawad had four primary children—two sons and two daughters—all borne by his wife, Samana al-Maghribiyya (a freed slave mother or Umm walad):53
Musa al-Mubarqa' (whose descendants include the Rizvi and Taqvi Sayyids)
Fatimah
Khadija
Other historical accounts, such as those by Ibn Shahr Ashub, record additional children, including sons named Husayn and Imran, and daughters named Hakima and Umm Kulthum.54
Qadiriyya lineage traditions
In classical Sufi biographical literature and genealogical charts (shijra), an additional son named Sayyid Abu Kamaluddin Isa (also recorded as Isa bin Muhammad al-Taqi) is attributed to Muhammad al-Jawad.55
In traditional Qadiriyya literature—most notably in Bahjat al-Asrar by Ali ibn Yusuf al-Shattanawfi and Qala'id al-Jawahir by Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Tadifi—Sayyid Abu Kamaluddin Isa is recorded as a direct maternal ancestor of Abdul Qadir Gilani through his grandfather, Abdullah Sawma'i az-Zahid.56
While widely cited in traditional Sufi charts, classical Shi'i and secular genealogists (Nassabun) do not universally list Isa among the immediate surviving sons of the Ninth Imam, leading historians to treat this attestation as a traditional spiritual lineage (shijra tabarruki).57
Death
Muhammad al-Jawad died on 6 Dhu'l-Hijja 220 AH (30 November 835) in Baghdad, after arriving there in Muharram 220 (January 835) at the request of al-Mu'tasim,6 who hosted him and his wife during the visit.3 He died at the age of about twenty-five, the youngest among the Twelve Imams.358 All major Sunni sources are silent about the cause of his death, including those by al-Tabari, al-Baghdadi, and Ibn al-Athir.59 Among medieval Sunni authors, an exception is Ibn al-Sabbagh, who accepts the possibility of murder.60 In contrast, Shia sources hold the Abbasids responsible in the deaths of multiple Shia Imams, including al-Jawad.6162 In his case, Shia sources are nearly unanimous that he was murdered at the instigation of al-Mu'tasim.61 The silence of Sunni sources here is attributed by the Shia to the atmosphere of fear and intimidation under the Abbasids. In particular, Ibn Shahrashub said that he wrote his Manaqib Ale Abi Talib "to bring forth what they [the Sunnis] have suppressed."61 An exception here is al-Mufid who does not find the evidence for murder credible.63646 Among other sources, Ithbat al-wassiya attributes a hadith to al-Rida, childless at the time, in which he apparently predicts the birth of his son al-Jawad and his murder.65
While the manner of his death is given differently by Shia authors,64 most say that al-Jawad was poisoned by his disaffected wife Umm al-Fadl, at the instigation of her uncle al-Mu'tasim.423666 These include the Shia-leaning historian al-Mas'udi,67 and Twelver scholars Ibn Jarir al-Tabari al-Saghir,6869Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (d. 1699), Abbas Qomi (d. 1941), and Tabatabai.70 The Twelver scholar Shaykh Tabarsi (d. 1153) does not have a verdict but mentions the prevalent Shia view that al-Jawad was poisoned.71 Sunni sources typically say that Umm al-Fadl was present in Baghdad when her husband died.72 Citing the Sunni historian al-Baghdadi and some others, Baghestani writes that she joined the harem of al-Mu'tasim after the death of al-Jawad.4 He was buried next to his grandfather, Musa al-Kazim, the seventh of the Twelve Imams, in the cemetery of the Quraysh on the west bank of Tigris, where the Kazimayn shrine was later erected.6Kazimayn has become an important center for pilgrimage.73
Imamate
Designation as the Imam
Muhammad al-Jawad was about seven years old when his father al-Rida died in 203 AH (818).741 Even as the only child of al-Rida, the succession of the young Muhammad to the imamate became controversial,6 but did not result in permanent divisions of the Shia community.7576 At the time, al-Mas'udi notes the confusion (hayra) among the Imamite Shias about the qualifications of the young al-Jawad for the imamate.773 As related by al-Mas'udi and Majlesi,78 several supporters of al-Rida thus gathered in Baghdad at the house of Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hajjaj, a distinguished companion of the three previous Imams, namely, Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 765), al-Kazim, and al-Rida.379 Of those present, Yunus ibn Abd al-Rahman reportedly suggested they choose a temporary leader until al-Jawad reached adulthood. But the view that prevailed was that adulthood is not a prerequisite for wisdom.80 There is also the account in Ithbat al-wasiyya and elsewhere, saying that the prominent Shias from across the empire tested the young al-Jawad during the Hajj season and their doubts about him were dispelled.181 There are also reports about the direct or indirect designation (nass) of al-Jawad as the next imam by his predecessor.82 These are often narrated by the inner circle of al-Rida,83 thus signifying their visible role in consolidating the imamate of the young al-Jawad.84 An example of indirect designation is the statement referring to the young al-Jawad as "the greatest blessing for the Shia," ascribed to al-Rida in the canonical Kitab al-Irshad and other sources.85 Elsewhere when al-Husayn ibn al-Qiayama questioned the imamate of al-Rida for his lack of an heir at the time, he responded that he would have a son to succeed him.86
According to Wardrop, as the only son of al-Rida, recognition of al-Jawad as the heir to the imamate was to be expected,87 adding that there is considerable evidence in the hadith literature against the horizontal transference of the imamate between brothers after Hasan ibn Ali (d. 670) and Husayn ibn Ali (d. 680), the second and third of the Twelve Imams.88 Wardrop points out that there were very few qualified alternatives to al-Jawad anyway,89 naming his uncles, Ahmad ibn Musa and Abdallah ibn Musa, and also a different Hasanid with the latter name.90 That there was no clear alternative to al-Jawad is also the view of the Muslim jurist Hossein Modarressi.91 The attention al-Jawad received from al-Ma'mun, who married him to his daughter, may have also strengthened the case for al-Jawad.92 Wardrop thus concludes that the main challenge to the imamate of al-Jawad was his young age, given that the imamate was viewed by the Shia as the ultimate source of knowledge (ilm) and guidance.93 A group of followers of al-Rida thus accepted the imamate of his brother, Ahmad ibn Musa,63 who had earlier rivaled al-Rida.86 Another group joined the Waqifites, who considered al-Kazim to be the last Imam and expected his return as Mahdi, the promised savior in Islam.63 Some of these apparently argued that their imam could not be a child.94 According to Madelung, some others, who had opportunistically backed the imamate of al-Rida after his appointment as the heir apparent, had now returned to their Sunni or Zaydi communities.6
Precedents
As for precedents, there were no child imams before al-Jawad, even though Ali ibn Abi Talib professed Islam at the age of about ten, and Hasan and Husayn formally pledged their allegiance to the prophet when they were about six.95 Imamite authors have noted that Jesus received his prophetic mission in the Quran when he was still a child,9666 suggesting that al-Jawad also received the requisite perfect knowledge of all religious matters through divine inspiration from the time of his succession, irrespective of his age.37 Similar statements are also attributed to al-Rida, "This [his age] does not harm him [al-Jawad], Isa [Jesus] became God's hujja (lit. 'proof') when he was three years old."97 The related Quranic verse 19:12 includes, "We gave him John the Baptisthukm (lit. 'wisdom') as a child."98 Even so, some among the Shia still debated as to whether the young Imam was equal to an adult Imam in every aspect,99100 as evidenced by some reports in heresiographies and in al-Maqalat by al-Mufid. The latter reports that some proposed that the "pious men with religious and legal knowledge" should lead until al-Jawad matured.101 However, the prevailing answer was that both adult and minor Imams are equal since both receive their knowledge from supernatural sources.99 Indeed, there already were traditions attributed to earlier Imams asserting that each Imam would inherit the full knowledge of his predecessor upon his death.102
Network of representatives
To organize the affairs of a growing Shia population, which had expanded far to the east of Iraq and Arabia, the young al-Jawad relied heavily on his representatives or agents (wukalāʾ, sing. wakīl) throughout the empire.3 This underground103 network of agents across the Abbasid empire was founded by his grandfather al-Kazim (d. 799) and maintained by his son al-Rida.4 There is even some evidence that an early network existed under al-Sadiq (d. 765).104105 This network guided the financial and religious affairs of the Imamite Shias.4106 After the death of al-Rida, it took possibly up to four years for the imamate of al-Jawad to consolidate.107 In this period of uncertainty, the network of wukalāʾ likely continued to function, but did so more independently than ever before.108 Wardrop suggests that this level of autonomy continued throughout the childhood of al-Jawad.109 After al-Rida, some agents remained loyal to his successor, possibly after testing him during the Hajj season.4 These included Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Muhtadi, Ayyub ibn Nuh,110 and Yahya ibn Abi Imran.111 Some others did not, including perhaps Safwan ibn Yahya, Muhammad ibn Sinan, Zakariyya ibn Adam, and Sa'd ibn Sa'd.112 There are conflicting reports about these four and whether they withheld their collected alms from al-Jawad, but some of them are said to have later returned to the Imam.113 Because of the relative isolation of al-Jawad by the Abbasids,114 the Imamite Shias normally communicated with their Imam through his agents, except during Hajj when they met directly with him.4
During al-Jawad's imamate, Shia activists were dispatched to Egypt and elsewhere, as reported by the Twelver traditionist Ahmad ibn Ali al-Najashi (d. 1058). They were apparently successful and an account by the Twelver traditionist Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 941) describes how Ali ibn Asbat visited al-Jawad on behalf of the Egyptian Imamites.115 Among the agents of al-Jawad were Ali ibn Mahziar Ahvazi in Ahvaz, Ibrahim ibn Muhammad Hamdani in Hamedan, Yahya ibn Abi Imran in Rayy, Yunus ibn Abdulrahman and Abu Amr al-Hadhdha' in Basra, Ali ibn Hasan W'aseti in Baghdad, Ali ibn Asbat in Egypt, Safwan ibn Yahya in Kufa, Saleh Ibn Muhammad Ibn Sahl and Zakaria ibn Adam Ash'ari Qomi in Qom. In addition to these agents, al-Jawad sometimes sent special representatives to cities to collect religious taxes,4 including Khums.116 Some followers of al-Jawad received permission to work within the Abbasid government for the benefit of the Shia community.1064 These included Muhammad ibn Isma'il ibn Baz'i and Ahmad ibn al-Hamza al-Qomi in the vizierate, Husayn ibn Abd-Allah al-Neishaburi, the ruler of Bost and Sistan, Hakam ibn Alia' al-Asadi, the ruler of Bahrain, and Nuh ibn Darraj, the qadi of Baghdad and then Kufa.1064 Some of these figures are now known to have secretly paid their Khums to al-Jawad.106 Towards the end of al-Jawad's life, the organization and activities of his agents further expanded.4 Some of his followers became integrated within the Abbasid army, while he announced his successor, Ali al-Hadi, through his main agent, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj,41 or through another companion, Abu al-Khayrani.117
Role in Shia revolts
Muhammad al-Jawad adopted a quiescent attitude and kept aloof from politics, similar to many of his predecessors.51 Nevertheless, Hussain links the 210 AH (825) uprising in Qom to the political activities of al-Jawad's agents, even though the Imamite sources are silent about any military involvement of his underground organization.4118 Prior to this revolt, residents of Qom, a rising Shia center,11929 had called on al-Ma'mun to lower their taxes as he had done for the city of Rayy.106 The caliph rejected their appeal, then suppressed their subsequent revolt, and substantially raised their taxes.3 This is detailed by the Twelver traditionist Ibn Shahrashub (d. 1192),120 who writes that the Abbasid army demolished the wall surrounding the city, killed many, and nearly quadrupled the taxes.106 Among those killed was a prominent participant in the uprising, named Yahya ibn Imran,3 who might have been a representative (wakīl) of Muhammad al-Jawad.3106 The attitude of al-Jawad towards this uprising, however, remains unclear,3 as the Imamite sources are silent about this uprising and its connection to al-Jawad or lack thereof.118 Probably connecting al-Jawad to Shia rebellions, al-Ma'mun summoned the former from Medina to Baghdad in 215 AH (830) and married his daughter Umm Fazl to him. This marriage, however, did not win al-Ma'mun the Shia support, nor did it stop the uprisings in Qom.4118 Indeed, some reports by al-Tabari and Ibn al-Athir add that among the rebel leaders who had been exiled to Egypt, Ja'far ibn Dawud al-Qomi later escaped and rose again in Qom,106 defeating the Abbasid army in 216 AH. The Shia uprisings continued even after his execution in 217 AH by the Abbasids. After succeeding al-Ma'mun, al-Mu'tasim summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in 220 AH (835) and held him under close surveillance, probably to ascertain his role in the Shia uprisings.4118
Companions and narrators of hadith
Shaykh Tusi (d. 1067) has listed one hundred and sixteen narrators of hadith from al-Jawad, though only a few of them were his trusted companions, including Ali ibn Mahziar Ahvazi, Abu Hashim Dawud ibn al-Qasim al-Ja'fari, Abd al-Azim al-Hasani, Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Bazanti, Ali ibn Asbat Kufi, Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi, and Amro ibn Firat.4 In particular, Ibn Mahziar was the agent of al-Jawad in Ahvaz and wrote two books, namely, Kitab al-Malahim and Kitab al-Qa'im, about occultation,4 which is the eschatological belief that Mahdi, a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, has already been born and subsequently concealed from the public.121 The two sons of Ibn Mahziar, named Ibrahim and Muhammad, later served as the representatives of the twelfth Imam in Ahvaz.122 The Imam distanced himself from the Ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators') who believed in the divinity of Imams.123 Among them were Abu l-Khattab, Abu al-Samhari, and Ibn Abi Zarqa, who are said to have defamed Shia by forging traditions and attributing them to the Imams and introducing themselves as their representatives.4
Karamat
In Shia sources, al-Jawad is credited with some karamat (sing. karamah),124 that is, supernatural acts or miracles sometimes attributed to saints in Islam.125 These include speaking at the time of his birth, tay al-ard (teleportation in Islamic mysticism) from Medina to Khorasan for the burial of his father al-Rida, miraculously healing the sick, fulfillment of his prayers for friends and against his enemies, informing about the inner secrets of people, predicting future events, and particularly his death. These are often cited by the Shia as proof of his imamate.4 A subtle story of this kind in Bihar al-Anwar and Kitab al-Kafi is told on the authority of Abd-Allah ibn Razin. When visiting the Imam, he decided to gather some of the earth upon which al-Jawad had set foot, a desire that he later deemed sinful. However, his attempts to tactfully do so were all thwarted by al-Jawad, who subtly changed his daily routines. This continued to the point that it surprised the attendant of Imam and let Abd-Allah realize that al-Jawad was aware of his sinful determination. It was only after Abd-Allah resolved to give up that al-Jawad returned to his usual routine.124
Successor
After the death of al-Jawad in 220 AH (835),6 the majority of his followers acknowledged the imamate of his son Ali,58 later to be known by the epithets al-Hadi (lit. 'the guide') and al-Naqi (lit. 'the distinguished').29 Similar to his father, Ali was also a minor when he succeeded him in 220 AH (835) at the age of about seven.58 The will attributed to al-Jawad in Kitab al-Kafi stipulates that Ali would inherit from him and be responsible for his younger brother, Musa, and his sisters.1267 Muhammad al-Jawad is also said to have announced the succession of Ali through his main agent, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj,41 or through Abu al-Khayrani.117 This messenger relayed the designation to the assembly of companions after the death of al-Jawad and the majority there is reported to have agreed on the imamate of Ali al-Hadi.127
Legacy
Muhammad al-Jawad was engaged in teaching during his eight years in Baghdad,37 and he was renowned for his public defense of Islamic tradition, according to Edward D.A. Hulmes.66 His extensive correspondence with his followers on questions of Islamic law (fiqh) about marriage, divorce, and inheritance has been preserved in Shia sources. Ali al-Rida is even said to have praised his son for writing "extremely elegant" letters while still a young boy.3 According to Hamid Mavani, most Shia hadiths about Khums (Islamic alms, lit. 'one-fifth') are attributed to al-Jawad and his successor, al-Hadi.128 Mavani regards Khums as an example of the Imams' discretionary authority as Shia leaders, which in this case countered the redirection of Zakat (another Islamic alms) to sustain oppressive regimes and support the affluent lifestyle of caliphs.128 Among the Shia, the titles al-Qa'im (lit. 'he who will rise') and less frequently al-Mahdi refer to the messianic figure in Islam.129130 This apparently created confusion and al-Jawad is reported to have identified the two, saying that Qa'im Al Muhammad is the last Imam and that he would be al-Mahdi.131 Verses 81:15–16, "O, but I call to witness the planets, the stars which rise and set,"132 were also interpreted by al-Jawad and his predecessor al-Baqir as referring to the reappearance of al-Mahdi, thus likening him to a shooting star in the dark night.133Musnad al-imam al-Jawad lists the collections of hadith that contain the sermons and sayings attributed to al-Jawad, including al-Tazkirat al-Hamdouniya by the Sunni scholar Ibn Hamdan (d. 1295).4 Among many pithy religio-ethical sayings attributed to al-Jawad,3 Donaldson quotes a few:37
Muhammad al-Jawad related from Ali ibn Abi Talib that, once when the prophet sent him to Yemen, he said to him, "O Ali, he is never disappointed who asks for good (from God), and He never has a motive for repenting who asks (His) advice."
Muhammad al-Jawad reported that the prophet had said to Ali, "Rise betimes in the name of God, for God hath bestowed a blessing on my people in their early rising."
"Whosoever gaineth for himself a brother in God, hath gained for himself a mansion in Paradise."
Muhammad al-Jawad related from the prophet, "Make it a point to travel by night, for more ground can be got over by night than by day."37
Bayhom-Daou, Tamima (2009). "ʿAlī Al-Riḍā". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_22933. ISBN 9789004181304.
Bobrick, Benson (2012). The Caliph's Splendor - Islam and the West in the Golden Age of Baghdad. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781416568063.
Cooperson, Michael (2013). "Ma'mun (786–833)". In Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 328–329. ISBN 9780691134840.
Gardet, L. (2012). "Karāma". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0445. ISBN 9789004161214.
Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2008). "'Abbāsids". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Alta Mira. pp. 11–14. ISBN 9781905299683.
Hulmes, Edward D. A. (2008). "Muhammad al-Taqi". In Netton, Ian Richard (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. Routledge. p. 433. ISBN 9780700715886.
Kohlberg, E. (2012). "Mūsā al-Kāẓim". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5563. ISBN 9789004161214.
Lewis, B. (2012). "'Alī al-Riḍā". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0540. ISBN 9789004161214.
Al-Mufid, Shaykh (1981). Kitab al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Translated by Howard, I.K.A. Tahrike Tarsile Quran. pp. 495–497. ISBN 978-0-940368-12-5. ↩
Al-Shattanawfi, Ali ibn Yusuf (1913). Bahjat al-Asrar wa Ma'dan al-Anwar. Matba'at al-Sada al-Wafaiyya, Cairo. pp. 12–15. ↩
Al-Tadifi, Muhammad ibn Yahya (1998). Necklaces of Gems (Qala'id al-Jawahir). Translated by Holland, Muhtar. Al-Baz Publishing. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-1-882000-11-2. ↩
Eduard, Von Zambaur (1927). Manuel de généalogie et de chronologie pour l'histoire de l'Islam. A. Heinz. pp. 19–21. ↩
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jawad (Arabic: مُحَمَّدٌ بْنُ عَلِيٍّ ٱلْجَوَادُ, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Jawād, c. 8 April 811 – c. 29 November 835), also known as Muhammad al-Taqi, was a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the ninth of the Twelve Imams, succeeding his father Ali al-Rida. Born in Medina around 810, al-Jawad was the only child of al-Rida, the eighth Imam. When al-Rida left Medina after being summoned to Khorasan by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun to assume the position of heir apparent, he did not take any of his family members with him. Al-Jawad was only four years old when his father reluctantly left Medina. Therefore, al-Jawad spent most of his childhood away from his father. Al-Rida's appointment provoked strong opposition among the Abbasids in Baghdad, which forced al-Ma'mun to return to the capital Baghdad in 818. On the way back, al-Rida suddenly fell ill and died mysteriously in Tus, likely poisoned by order of al-Ma'mun as he made concessions to the opposition.
Upon the death of al-Rida, the succession of his only son al-Jawad to the Imamate at the age of seven became controversial, but most recognized his knowledge and religious authority. At the time, some instead turned for leadership to al-Jawad's uncle, Ahmad ibn Musa, and some others joined the Waqifites, but the succession of al-Jawad did not create any permanent divisions. Shia sources often justify the Imamate of the young al-Jawad by drawing parallels with Jesus and John the Baptist, both of whom in the Quran received their prophetic missions in childhood. Like most of his predecessors, al-Jawad kept aloof from politics and engaged in religious teaching, while organizing the affairs of through the network of representatives () that his grandfather and the seventh Imam, , had established. The extensive correspondence of al-Jawad with his followers on questions of has been preserved in Shia sources, and numerous pithy religio-ethical sayings are attributed to him.
In 830, al-Jawad was summoned to Baghdad by al-Ma'mun, who married his daughter Umm Fadhl to the former. This marriage, however, was to be without issue and might have been infelicitous. His successor, Ali al-Hadi, was already born to Samana, a freed slave (umm walad). In 833, al-Ma'mun died and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, who summoned al-Jawad again to Baghdad in 835 and hosted him and his wife, possibly to investigate any links between al-Jawad and new Alid revolts. Al-Jawad died in the same year at the age of about twenty-five. All Sunni sources are silent about the manner of his death, while Shia authorities are unanimous that he was poisoned by his disaffected wife, Umm al-Fadl, at the instigation of her uncle, caliph al-Mu'tasim. Al-Jawad is buried next to his grandfather in the Al-Kazimiyya Mosque, a holy site in Shia Islam.
Titles
Muhammad ibn Ali, the ninth of the Twelve Imams, is occasionally known in Shia sources as al-Taqi (Arabic: التقى, lit. 'the pious'),1 but more commonly as al-Jawad (Arabic: الجواد, lit. 'the generous') for his munificence.2 The Imam is cited in the Shia hadith literature as Abu Ja'far al-Thani (Arabic: ابو جعفر الثاني, lit. 'Abu Ja'far, the second'),3 with the title Abu Ja'far reserved for his predecessor, Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 732), the fifth of the Twelve Imams.4 His kunya is Abu Ali (Arabic: ابو علي),4 though he was also known by his contemporaries as Ibn al-Rida (Arabic: ابن الرضا, lit. 'son of al-Rida') because he was the only child of Ali al-Rida.3 Muhammad is also known as Javad al-A'imma (lit. 'generous among the Imams'), a devotional title reflecting his reputation for generosity and benevolence.
Life
Birth (c. 810)
Muhammad al-Jawad was born in Medina,53 or in a village near Medina founded by his grandfather, Musa al-Kazim (d. 799).67 Sources seem to agree that he was born 195 AH (810–811) but the exact date is disputed.3 Most Twelver sources record mid-Ramadan 195 AH (mid-June 811) as the birthday of Muhammad but Ibn Ayyas (d. 1522/1524) favors 10 Rajab 195 AH (8 April 811). This latter date agrees with Ziyarat al-Nahiya al-Muqaddasa, a supplication attributed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, the last of the Twelve Imams.3 It is this date that the Shia celebrate annually.38 His father Ali al-Rida, the eighth of the Twelve Imams, was a descendant of Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661) and Fatima (d. 632), who were the cousin and the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, respectively. Most records agree that the mother of Muhammad al-Jawad was a freed slave (umm walad) from Nubia,5 though her name is given differently in sources as Sabika or Durra (sometimes Khayzuran).36 She might have belonged to the family of Maria al-Qibtiyya, a freed slave of the prophet and the mother of his son Ibrahim, who died in childhood.36
Reign of al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833)
Marriage (c. 817)
Muhammad stayed behind in Medina when his father al-Rida traveled to Merv in Khorasan at the request of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833).9 The caliph designated al-Rida as the heir apparent in 202 AH (817),9 and also changed the official Abbasid color of black to green, possibly to signify this reconciliation between the Abbasids and the Alids.710 To form a political alliance,11 the caliph also married one of his daughters, named Umm Habib,4 to al-Rida in 202 AH (817) and promised another daughter, named Umm al-Fadl,12 to Muhammad, who was still a minor at the time,139 aged about seven.12 Among Sunni historians, al-Tabari (d. 923), Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur (d. 893), and Ibn al-Athir al-Jazari (d. 1232–1233) agree on this report.14 It is likely that Muhammad was absent from the ceremony,415 even though Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi (d. 1169) relates that he visited his father in Merv in 202 AH (817).4 In contrast, the Sunni historian al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071)16 and the Shia-leaning historians Al-Masudi (d. 956)12 and Ya'qubi (d. 897–898)6 place the betrothal of Muhammad after the death of al-Rida in 204 AH (819), following the return of al-Ma'mun to his capital Baghdad. In particular, al-Mas'udi in his Ithbat al-wassiya writes that al-Ma'mun summoned Muhammad to Baghdad, settled him near his palace, and later decided to marry him to his daughter, Umm Fadl,12 whose given name was Zaynab.63 According to al-Baghdadi, Muhammad was about nine years old at the time of this betrothal.16
Death of his father (c. 818)
Ali al-Rida was a prominent Alid, a descendant of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The Alids were viewed as rivals for the caliphate by the Abbasids, who were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, a paternal uncle of Muhammad.17 The appointment of the Alid al-Rida by the Abbasid caliph thus invoked strong opposition, particularly among the members of the Abbasid dynasty and the Iraqi supporters of Abbasid legitimism.713 These revolted and installed al-Ma'mun's uncle, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi, as an anti-caliph in Baghdad.131819 The caliph and his entourage thus left Khorasan for Baghdad in 203 AH (818),15 accompanied by al-Rida.719 The latter died shortly in Tus after a brief illness,20 possibly after being poisoned.1315 The death of al-Rida followed the assassination of al-Fadl ibn Sahl (d. 818), the Persian vizier of al-Ma'mun,13 who had become a divisive figure.21 Both deaths are linked in Shia sources to al-Ma'mun and viewed as concessions to the Arab party to smooth his return to Iraq.212215 Modern scholars similarly tend to suspect the caliph in the death of al-Rida.7232120 After returning to Baghdad in 204 AH (819),246 al-Ma'mun reversed his pro-Shia policies,151325 and restored the traditional black color of the Abbasids.13 Muhammad was about seven years old when his father died.6 There are multiple Shia reports that he told others about the death of his father before the news arrived in Medina,26 and some traditions indicate that he was miraculously present in the burial of al-Rida in Khurasan and prayed over his body.427
Summoned to Baghdad (c. 819)
Soon after arriving in Baghdad in 204 AH (819),24 al-Ma'mun summoned the young Muhammad who then stayed at the court of the caliph.28 The betrothal of Muhammad and Umm Fadl or its proposal was apparently opposed by some of the Abbasids,296 reportedly because of the dark complexion of Muhammad.6 An account of their protests appears in the biographical Kitab al-Irshad by the Twelver theologian Al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 1022),30 though the Islamicist Shona F. Wardrop suspects that it may actually refer to the designation of al-Rida as the heir apparent.31 In any case, al-Mufid suggests that the opposition actually feared the political rise of Muhammad similar to his father al-Rida,4 and the view of the Islamicist Wilferd Madelung is similar.6 Those opposed to the marriage arranged for a public debate where the chief judge Yahya ibn Aktam interrogated the young Muhammad with difficult theological questions to which he answered correctly.34 An account of this is given by al-Mas'udi,32 but the seventeenth-century hadith collection Bihar al-Anwar adds that Yahya also presented Muhammad with provocative questions about the status of the early caliphs Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644), including an alleged prophetic tradition that compares the two caliphs with the archangels Gabriel and Michael. These claims al-Jawad refuted in mild language.33 The attribution of this latter exchange to Muhammad al-Jawad is, however, uncertain since a similar exchange between al-Ma'mun and some Sunni scholars is described by the tenth-century hadith collection Uyoun Akhbar Al-Ridha.34 At any rate, it is at the end of this assembly that al-Ma'mun formally married his daughter to Muhammad, according to al-Mas'udi and al-Mufid.354 This episode is thus viewed by the Twelvers as evidence of the exceptional knowledge of Muhammad al-Jawad.3
Kitab al-Irshad implies that Muhammad returned to Medina after this episode in Baghdad.36 By some accounts, however, he stayed in Baghdad for about eight years, primarily engaged in teaching, before returning to Medina with his family after the death of al-Ma'mun in 218 AH (833).3729 This is viewed as house arrest by the historian Jassim M. Hussain,38 citing a report by al-Mas'udi.39 There is not much known about this period of his life.40
Summoned to Baghdad (830)
The marriage of al-Jawad to the daughter of the caliph was consummated in 215 AH (830),15 when al-Ma'mun invited the former to Baghdad from Medina.63 The couple stayed there until the Hajj season (January 831) when they returned to Medina after completing the Hajj ritual.316 Possibly hoping to blunt the Shia opposition through al-Jawad,41 the caliph is said to have displayed much affection towards the young man.329 By marrying his daughter to al-Jawad, the Twelver scholar Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai (d. 1981) suggests that al-Ma'mun might have wanted to keep a close watch on him from both outside and within his household.42 Hussain similarly suggests that al-Ma'mun intended to monitor al-Jawad and divide the Shia opposition,38 hoping thus to mitigate their revolts, including some fresh uprisings in Qom.43 This view is rejected by the historian Moojan Momen, who says that al-Ma'mun might have had little to fear from the revolts in Qom.29 Medoff believes that al-Ma'mun pursued a policy of simultaneously appeasing and containing pro-Alid groups,3 while Wardrop writes that the marriage was intended to discourage the Shia from revolution.44 Hussain and Esmail Baghestani say that the marriage did not win the Shia support for al-Ma'mun, nor did it stop the Shia revolts.414
Reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842)
Caliph al-Ma'mun died in 218 AH (833) and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, who continued the policy of his predecessor in simultaneously appeasing and containing pro-Alid groups, according to Medoff.3 It was perhaps to further this policy that al-Mu'tasim summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in 220 AH (835) and hosted him and his wife.3 The departure of al-Jawad was apparently facilitated by Abd al-Malik al-Zayyat at the behest of the caliph.45 An exception here is the account of al-Mas'udi which does not explicitly state that al-Jawad was summoned by al-Mu'tasim.46 At any rate, al-Jawad died there in the same year, some ten months after his arrival,45 at the age of about twenty-five.296 During this short window, Shia sources accuse al-Mu'tasim of multiple attempts to discredit al-Jawad and finally murdering him.45 This alleged hostility of al-Mu'tasim may have been compounded by a recent wave of Shia revolts in Qom and in Taliqan, even though there is no evidence that al-Jawad was involved in them.47 One such attempt against al-Jawad was prevented by one of his supporters, Ahmad ibn Hammad al-Marwazi, who was nevertheless an advisor to Ibn Abi Dawud, the influential qadi. The caliph apparently abandoned his plan to dishonor al-Jawad by parading him while intoxicated after Ahmad convinced the qadi about the futility of this plan, saying that the ire of the caliph would only strengthen the loyalty of Imamites for al-Jawad. The qadi passed on the advice to the caliph.48 A different account by Ibn Awrama, quoted in Bihar al-anwar and Manaqib, describes how al-Jawad unmasked false witnesses who had accused him of plotting against the caliph, though the miraculous ending of this account weakens its historical weight.49 Another account is narrated by Zurqan, a sahib of the qadi Ibn Abi Dawud: The caliph is said to have solicited and preferred the judicial ruling of al-Jawad about amputating the hand of a thief in the presence of other scholars. This infuriated the qadi, who later visited the caliph and warned him about inadvertently bolstering the public support for al-Jawad as an alternative to al-Mu'tasim. This then set in motion the plot to poison al-Jawad.50
Personal life
Similar to his predecessors, al-Jawad lived modestly and gave to the poor generously, according to Dwight M. Donaldson (d. 1976).51 Baghestani adds that al-Jawad gave charity at the beginning of every month and interceded with the officials on behalf of the people.4 His arranged marriage in 215 AH (830) to Umm al-Fadl did not result in any children.6 There are other indications that this marriage was not particularly felicitous, including reports that she complained to al-Ma'mun about her marriage,3 specifically about her husband taking a concubine,52 but the caliph rejected her complaint.652 Umm al-Fadl is also commonly held responsible in Shia sources for the death of al-Jawad in 220 AH (835) by poisoning.36 Ali al-Hadi, the successor of al-Jawad, was born to Samana, a freed slave (umm walad) of Maghrebian (North African) origin,29 circa 212 AH (828).7 Other children of al-Jawad were Musa al-Mubarraqa and two or four daughters.3 In some genealogical books, other sons have been named but there is no mention of them in the earliest sources. The daughters of al-Jawad are named differently in the sources. Here, al-Mufid gives the names Fatima and Amama, while the biographical source Dala'il al-imama lists Khadija, Hakima, and Umm Kulthum. The Sunni theologian Fakhr Razi (d. 1209) adds Behjat and Barihe to these names, saying that none of them left any descendants. The children of al-Jawad were all born to Samana.4
Personal life and Family
Classical genealogical consensus
According to mainstream Shi'i and Sunni biographical works, including Shaykh al-Mufid's Kitab al-Irshad, Muhammad al-Jawad had four primary children—two sons and two daughters—all borne by his wife, Samana al-Maghribiyya (a freed slave mother or Umm walad):53
Musa al-Mubarqa' (whose descendants include the Rizvi and Taqvi Sayyids)
Fatimah
Khadija
Other historical accounts, such as those by Ibn Shahr Ashub, record additional children, including sons named Husayn and Imran, and daughters named Hakima and Umm Kulthum.54
Qadiriyya lineage traditions
In classical Sufi biographical literature and genealogical charts (shijra), an additional son named Sayyid Abu Kamaluddin Isa (also recorded as Isa bin Muhammad al-Taqi) is attributed to Muhammad al-Jawad.55
In traditional Qadiriyya literature—most notably in Bahjat al-Asrar by Ali ibn Yusuf al-Shattanawfi and Qala'id al-Jawahir by Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Tadifi—Sayyid Abu Kamaluddin Isa is recorded as a direct maternal ancestor of Abdul Qadir Gilani through his grandfather, Abdullah Sawma'i az-Zahid.56
While widely cited in traditional Sufi charts, classical Shi'i and secular genealogists (Nassabun) do not universally list Isa among the immediate surviving sons of the Ninth Imam, leading historians to treat this attestation as a traditional spiritual lineage (shijra tabarruki).57
Death
Muhammad al-Jawad died on 6 Dhu'l-Hijja 220 AH (30 November 835) in Baghdad, after arriving there in Muharram 220 (January 835) at the request of al-Mu'tasim,6 who hosted him and his wife during the visit.3 He died at the age of about twenty-five, the youngest among the Twelve Imams.358 All major Sunni sources are silent about the cause of his death, including those by al-Tabari, al-Baghdadi, and Ibn al-Athir.59 Among medieval Sunni authors, an exception is Ibn al-Sabbagh, who accepts the possibility of murder.60 In contrast, Shia sources hold the Abbasids responsible in the deaths of multiple Shia Imams, including al-Jawad.6162 In his case, Shia sources are nearly unanimous that he was murdered at the instigation of al-Mu'tasim.61 The silence of Sunni sources here is attributed by the Shia to the atmosphere of fear and intimidation under the Abbasids. In particular, Ibn Shahrashub said that he wrote his Manaqib Ale Abi Talib "to bring forth what they [the Sunnis] have suppressed."61 An exception here is al-Mufid who does not find the evidence for murder credible.63646 Among other sources, Ithbat al-wassiya attributes a hadith to al-Rida, childless at the time, in which he apparently predicts the birth of his son al-Jawad and his murder.65
While the manner of his death is given differently by Shia authors,64 most say that al-Jawad was poisoned by his disaffected wife Umm al-Fadl, at the instigation of her uncle al-Mu'tasim.423666 These include the Shia-leaning historian al-Mas'udi,67 and Twelver scholars Ibn Jarir al-Tabari al-Saghir,6869Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (d. 1699), Abbas Qomi (d. 1941), and Tabatabai.70 The Twelver scholar Shaykh Tabarsi (d. 1153) does not have a verdict but mentions the prevalent Shia view that al-Jawad was poisoned.71 Sunni sources typically say that Umm al-Fadl was present in Baghdad when her husband died.72 Citing the Sunni historian al-Baghdadi and some others, Baghestani writes that she joined the harem of al-Mu'tasim after the death of al-Jawad.4 He was buried next to his grandfather, Musa al-Kazim, the seventh of the Twelve Imams, in the cemetery of the Quraysh on the west bank of Tigris, where the Kazimayn shrine was later erected.6Kazimayn has become an important center for pilgrimage.73
Imamate
Designation as the Imam
Muhammad al-Jawad was about seven years old when his father al-Rida died in 203 AH (818).741 Even as the only child of al-Rida, the succession of the young Muhammad to the imamate became controversial,6 but did not result in permanent divisions of the Shia community.7576 At the time, al-Mas'udi notes the confusion (hayra) among the Imamite Shias about the qualifications of the young al-Jawad for the imamate.773 As related by al-Mas'udi and Majlesi,78 several supporters of al-Rida thus gathered in Baghdad at the house of Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hajjaj, a distinguished companion of the three previous Imams, namely, Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 765), al-Kazim, and al-Rida.379 Of those present, Yunus ibn Abd al-Rahman reportedly suggested they choose a temporary leader until al-Jawad reached adulthood. But the view that prevailed was that adulthood is not a prerequisite for wisdom.80 There is also the account in Ithbat al-wasiyya and elsewhere, saying that the prominent Shias from across the empire tested the young al-Jawad during the Hajj season and their doubts about him were dispelled.181 There are also reports about the direct or indirect designation (nass) of al-Jawad as the next imam by his predecessor.82 These are often narrated by the inner circle of al-Rida,83 thus signifying their visible role in consolidating the imamate of the young al-Jawad.84 An example of indirect designation is the statement referring to the young al-Jawad as "the greatest blessing for the Shia," ascribed to al-Rida in the canonical Kitab al-Irshad and other sources.85 Elsewhere when al-Husayn ibn al-Qiayama questioned the imamate of al-Rida for his lack of an heir at the time, he responded that he would have a son to succeed him.86
According to Wardrop, as the only son of al-Rida, recognition of al-Jawad as the heir to the imamate was to be expected,87 adding that there is considerable evidence in the hadith literature against the horizontal transference of the imamate between brothers after Hasan ibn Ali (d. 670) and Husayn ibn Ali (d. 680), the second and third of the Twelve Imams.88 Wardrop points out that there were very few qualified alternatives to al-Jawad anyway,89 naming his uncles, Ahmad ibn Musa and Abdallah ibn Musa, and also a different Hasanid with the latter name.90 That there was no clear alternative to al-Jawad is also the view of the Muslim jurist Hossein Modarressi.91 The attention al-Jawad received from al-Ma'mun, who married him to his daughter, may have also strengthened the case for al-Jawad.92 Wardrop thus concludes that the main challenge to the imamate of al-Jawad was his young age, given that the imamate was viewed by the Shia as the ultimate source of knowledge (ilm) and guidance.93 A group of followers of al-Rida thus accepted the imamate of his brother, Ahmad ibn Musa,63 who had earlier rivaled al-Rida.86 Another group joined the Waqifites, who considered al-Kazim to be the last Imam and expected his return as Mahdi, the promised savior in Islam.63 Some of these apparently argued that their imam could not be a child.94 According to Madelung, some others, who had opportunistically backed the imamate of al-Rida after his appointment as the heir apparent, had now returned to their Sunni or Zaydi communities.6
Precedents
As for precedents, there were no child imams before al-Jawad, even though Ali ibn Abi Talib professed Islam at the age of about ten, and Hasan and Husayn formally pledged their allegiance to the prophet when they were about six.95 Imamite authors have noted that Jesus received his prophetic mission in the Quran when he was still a child,9666 suggesting that al-Jawad also received the requisite perfect knowledge of all religious matters through divine inspiration from the time of his succession, irrespective of his age.37 Similar statements are also attributed to al-Rida, "This [his age] does not harm him [al-Jawad], Isa [Jesus] became God's hujja (lit. 'proof') when he was three years old."97 The related Quranic verse 19:12 includes, "We gave him John the Baptisthukm (lit. 'wisdom') as a child."98 Even so, some among the Shia still debated as to whether the young Imam was equal to an adult Imam in every aspect,99100 as evidenced by some reports in heresiographies and in al-Maqalat by al-Mufid. The latter reports that some proposed that the "pious men with religious and legal knowledge" should lead until al-Jawad matured.101 However, the prevailing answer was that both adult and minor Imams are equal since both receive their knowledge from supernatural sources.99 Indeed, there already were traditions attributed to earlier Imams asserting that each Imam would inherit the full knowledge of his predecessor upon his death.102
Network of representatives
To organize the affairs of a growing Shia population, which had expanded far to the east of Iraq and Arabia, the young al-Jawad relied heavily on his representatives or agents (wukalāʾ, sing. wakīl) throughout the empire.3 This underground103 network of agents across the Abbasid empire was founded by his grandfather al-Kazim (d. 799) and maintained by his son al-Rida.4 There is even some evidence that an early network existed under al-Sadiq (d. 765).104105 This network guided the financial and religious affairs of the Imamite Shias.4106 After the death of al-Rida, it took possibly up to four years for the imamate of al-Jawad to consolidate.107 In this period of uncertainty, the network of wukalāʾ likely continued to function, but did so more independently than ever before.108 Wardrop suggests that this level of autonomy continued throughout the childhood of al-Jawad.109 After al-Rida, some agents remained loyal to his successor, possibly after testing him during the Hajj season.4 These included Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Muhtadi, Ayyub ibn Nuh,110 and Yahya ibn Abi Imran.111 Some others did not, including perhaps Safwan ibn Yahya, Muhammad ibn Sinan, Zakariyya ibn Adam, and Sa'd ibn Sa'd.112 There are conflicting reports about these four and whether they withheld their collected alms from al-Jawad, but some of them are said to have later returned to the Imam.113 Because of the relative isolation of al-Jawad by the Abbasids,114 the Imamite Shias normally communicated with their Imam through his agents, except during Hajj when they met directly with him.4
During al-Jawad's imamate, Shia activists were dispatched to Egypt and elsewhere, as reported by the Twelver traditionist Ahmad ibn Ali al-Najashi (d. 1058). They were apparently successful and an account by the Twelver traditionist Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 941) describes how Ali ibn Asbat visited al-Jawad on behalf of the Egyptian Imamites.115 Among the agents of al-Jawad were Ali ibn Mahziar Ahvazi in Ahvaz, Ibrahim ibn Muhammad Hamdani in Hamedan, Yahya ibn Abi Imran in Rayy, Yunus ibn Abdulrahman and Abu Amr al-Hadhdha' in Basra, Ali ibn Hasan W'aseti in Baghdad, Ali ibn Asbat in Egypt, Safwan ibn Yahya in Kufa, Saleh Ibn Muhammad Ibn Sahl and Zakaria ibn Adam Ash'ari Qomi in Qom. In addition to these agents, al-Jawad sometimes sent special representatives to cities to collect religious taxes,4 including Khums.116 Some followers of al-Jawad received permission to work within the Abbasid government for the benefit of the Shia community.1064 These included Muhammad ibn Isma'il ibn Baz'i and Ahmad ibn al-Hamza al-Qomi in the vizierate, Husayn ibn Abd-Allah al-Neishaburi, the ruler of Bost and Sistan, Hakam ibn Alia' al-Asadi, the ruler of Bahrain, and Nuh ibn Darraj, the qadi of Baghdad and then Kufa.1064 Some of these figures are now known to have secretly paid their Khums to al-Jawad.106 Towards the end of al-Jawad's life, the organization and activities of his agents further expanded.4 Some of his followers became integrated within the Abbasid army, while he announced his successor, Ali al-Hadi, through his main agent, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj,41 or through another companion, Abu al-Khayrani.117
Role in Shia revolts
Muhammad al-Jawad adopted a quiescent attitude and kept aloof from politics, similar to many of his predecessors.51 Nevertheless, Hussain links the 210 AH (825) uprising in Qom to the political activities of al-Jawad's agents, even though the Imamite sources are silent about any military involvement of his underground organization.4118 Prior to this revolt, residents of Qom, a rising Shia center,11929 had called on al-Ma'mun to lower their taxes as he had done for the city of Rayy.106 The caliph rejected their appeal, then suppressed their subsequent revolt, and substantially raised their taxes.3 This is detailed by the Twelver traditionist Ibn Shahrashub (d. 1192),120 who writes that the Abbasid army demolished the wall surrounding the city, killed many, and nearly quadrupled the taxes.106 Among those killed was a prominent participant in the uprising, named Yahya ibn Imran,3 who might have been a representative (wakīl) of Muhammad al-Jawad.3106 The attitude of al-Jawad towards this uprising, however, remains unclear,3 as the Imamite sources are silent about this uprising and its connection to al-Jawad or lack thereof.118 Probably connecting al-Jawad to Shia rebellions, al-Ma'mun summoned the former from Medina to Baghdad in 215 AH (830) and married his daughter Umm Fazl to him. This marriage, however, did not win al-Ma'mun the Shia support, nor did it stop the uprisings in Qom.4118 Indeed, some reports by al-Tabari and Ibn al-Athir add that among the rebel leaders who had been exiled to Egypt, Ja'far ibn Dawud al-Qomi later escaped and rose again in Qom,106 defeating the Abbasid army in 216 AH. The Shia uprisings continued even after his execution in 217 AH by the Abbasids. After succeeding al-Ma'mun, al-Mu'tasim summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in 220 AH (835) and held him under close surveillance, probably to ascertain his role in the Shia uprisings.4118
Companions and narrators of hadith
Shaykh Tusi (d. 1067) has listed one hundred and sixteen narrators of hadith from al-Jawad, though only a few of them were his trusted companions, including Ali ibn Mahziar Ahvazi, Abu Hashim Dawud ibn al-Qasim al-Ja'fari, Abd al-Azim al-Hasani, Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Bazanti, Ali ibn Asbat Kufi, Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi, and Amro ibn Firat.4 In particular, Ibn Mahziar was the agent of al-Jawad in Ahvaz and wrote two books, namely, Kitab al-Malahim and Kitab al-Qa'im, about occultation,4 which is the eschatological belief that Mahdi, a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, has already been born and subsequently concealed from the public.121 The two sons of Ibn Mahziar, named Ibrahim and Muhammad, later served as the representatives of the twelfth Imam in Ahvaz.122 The Imam distanced himself from the Ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators') who believed in the divinity of Imams.123 Among them were Abu l-Khattab, Abu al-Samhari, and Ibn Abi Zarqa, who are said to have defamed Shia by forging traditions and attributing them to the Imams and introducing themselves as their representatives.4
Karamat
In Shia sources, al-Jawad is credited with some karamat (sing. karamah),124 that is, supernatural acts or miracles sometimes attributed to saints in Islam.125 These include speaking at the time of his birth, tay al-ard (teleportation in Islamic mysticism) from Medina to Khorasan for the burial of his father al-Rida, miraculously healing the sick, fulfillment of his prayers for friends and against his enemies, informing about the inner secrets of people, predicting future events, and particularly his death. These are often cited by the Shia as proof of his imamate.4 A subtle story of this kind in Bihar al-Anwar and Kitab al-Kafi is told on the authority of Abd-Allah ibn Razin. When visiting the Imam, he decided to gather some of the earth upon which al-Jawad had set foot, a desire that he later deemed sinful. However, his attempts to tactfully do so were all thwarted by al-Jawad, who subtly changed his daily routines. This continued to the point that it surprised the attendant of Imam and let Abd-Allah realize that al-Jawad was aware of his sinful determination. It was only after Abd-Allah resolved to give up that al-Jawad returned to his usual routine.124
Successor
After the death of al-Jawad in 220 AH (835),6 the majority of his followers acknowledged the imamate of his son Ali,58 later to be known by the epithets al-Hadi (lit. 'the guide') and al-Naqi (lit. 'the distinguished').29 Similar to his father, Ali was also a minor when he succeeded him in 220 AH (835) at the age of about seven.58 The will attributed to al-Jawad in Kitab al-Kafi stipulates that Ali would inherit from him and be responsible for his younger brother, Musa, and his sisters.1267 Muhammad al-Jawad is also said to have announced the succession of Ali through his main agent, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj,41 or through Abu al-Khayrani.117 This messenger relayed the designation to the assembly of companions after the death of al-Jawad and the majority there is reported to have agreed on the imamate of Ali al-Hadi.127
Legacy
Muhammad al-Jawad was engaged in teaching during his eight years in Baghdad,37 and he was renowned for his public defense of Islamic tradition, according to Edward D.A. Hulmes.66 His extensive correspondence with his followers on questions of Islamic law (fiqh) about marriage, divorce, and inheritance has been preserved in Shia sources. Ali al-Rida is even said to have praised his son for writing "extremely elegant" letters while still a young boy.3 According to Hamid Mavani, most Shia hadiths about Khums (Islamic alms, lit. 'one-fifth') are attributed to al-Jawad and his successor, al-Hadi.128 Mavani regards Khums as an example of the Imams' discretionary authority as Shia leaders, which in this case countered the redirection of Zakat (another Islamic alms) to sustain oppressive regimes and support the affluent lifestyle of caliphs.128 Among the Shia, the titles al-Qa'im (lit. 'he who will rise') and less frequently al-Mahdi refer to the messianic figure in Islam.129130 This apparently created confusion and al-Jawad is reported to have identified the two, saying that Qa'im Al Muhammad is the last Imam and that he would be al-Mahdi.131 Verses 81:15–16, "O, but I call to witness the planets, the stars which rise and set,"132 were also interpreted by al-Jawad and his predecessor al-Baqir as referring to the reappearance of al-Mahdi, thus likening him to a shooting star in the dark night.133Musnad al-imam al-Jawad lists the collections of hadith that contain the sermons and sayings attributed to al-Jawad, including al-Tazkirat al-Hamdouniya by the Sunni scholar Ibn Hamdan (d. 1295).4 Among many pithy religio-ethical sayings attributed to al-Jawad,3 Donaldson quotes a few:37
Muhammad al-Jawad related from Ali ibn Abi Talib that, once when the prophet sent him to Yemen, he said to him, "O Ali, he is never disappointed who asks for good (from God), and He never has a motive for repenting who asks (His) advice."
Muhammad al-Jawad reported that the prophet had said to Ali, "Rise betimes in the name of God, for God hath bestowed a blessing on my people in their early rising."
"Whosoever gaineth for himself a brother in God, hath gained for himself a mansion in Paradise."
Muhammad al-Jawad related from the prophet, "Make it a point to travel by night, for more ground can be got over by night than by day."37
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