Jangyongyeong (壯勇營) was a royal guard military force established in 1785 by Jeongjo of Joseon. The official title of its commander was Jangyongsa (壯勇使).
In 1777, one year after Jeongjo ascended the throne, the "Jonhyeongak Rebellion" (尊賢閣 賊變), an attempted assassination of the king, occurred (Jeongyu Incident). In response, Jeongjo established the Sukwiso (宿衛所), with Hong Guk-yeong, the Commander of the Geumwi Office, serving as its Commander of Palace Guards. This placed Hong Guk-yeong in charge of protecting the king and of all affairs inside and outside the palace. However, because the Sukwiso was based on the Geumwiyeong, there was concern that it could be used as Hong Guk-yeong's private army. In the third year of Jeongjo's reign, a series of political incidents led to Hong Guk-yeong's downfall, and the Sukwiso was abolished along with him. Three years later, in the sixth year of Jeongjo's reign, the king's guard organization was re-established on the recommendation of Training Commander Gu Seon-bok, under the name "Musye Chulsin Cheong" (武藝出身廳, Office of Martial Arts Graduates). The elite guard unit that later developed and changed through the name "Jangyong Cheong" (壯勇廳) and became known as "Jangyongyeong" (壯勇營) was this Musye Chulsin Cheong.
History
The "Jonhyeongak Rebellion" (尊賢閣 賊變), an attempted assassination of Jeongjo, occurred one year after his ascension. In response, Jeongjo established the Sukwiso (宿衛所), with Hong Guk-yeong, the Commander of the Geumwi Office, serving as its Commander of Palace Guards. This placed Hong Guk-yeong in charge of protecting the king and of all affairs inside and outside the palace. However, because the Sukwiso was based on the Geumwiyeong, there was concern that it could be used as Hong Guk-yeong's private army. In the third year of Jeongjo's reign, a series of political incidents led to Hong Guk-yeong's downfall, and the Sukwiso was abolished along with him. Three years later, in the sixth year of Jeongjo's reign, the king's guard organization was re-established on the recommendation of Training Commander Gu Seon-bok, under the name "Musye Chulsin Cheong" (武藝出身廳).
Musye Chulsin Cheong
The "Musye Chulsin Cheong" (武藝出身廳) consisted of 30 Musye Chulsin (martial arts graduates) and 24 members of the Byeolgigun. According to Seo Hyeong-su's original text, the path was "from the Byeolgi Cheong to the Musye Cheong, and from the Musye Cheong to the Chulsin Cheong." The "Chulsin Cheong" (出身廳) referred to here is the Musye Chulsin Cheong. This shows that the Musye Chulsin Cheong was the highest-level unit that outstanding martial soldiers could attain. The Byeolgi Cheong referred to the Byeolgigun.
The 30 Musye Chulsin were divided into two units (bun) of 15 each, and each unit selected one Paedu (牌頭) and one Soim (所任). These were appointed from among the Musye Chulsin who had gone through certain career steps and were skilled in administrative work.1 The other members, the 24 Byeolgigun, were appointed by selecting 24 soldiers from among the Byeolgigun under the Hullyeon Dogam who were "young, robust, diligent, and skilled in archery and horsemanship." In addition, one Seogi (書記, clerk) was concurrently selected from among the members of the guard to handle the documents of the Musye Chulsin Cheong.
The soldiers and administrative organization of the Musye Chulsin Cheong were all modeled on the Hullyeon Dogam. The most important role of the Musye Chulsin Cheong was to be on duty in the palace and guard it. The duty stations of the soldiers belonging to the Musye Chulsin Cheong were as follows:
- West corridor of the Myeongjeongjeon: 1 Paedu, 1 Soim, and 10 Musye Chulsin on duty in two shifts2
- Hongwhamun: 1 Musye Chulsin leading 5 soldiers on duty3
- Public office (公廨) outside the Hyeop Gate (閤門): under the command of the Musye Chulsin, 8 Byeolgigun on duty in three shifts at the guardhouse (番所)4
Other duties of the Musye Chulsin Cheong included "Hoewi" (扈衛), protecting the king, and "Geumhwa" (禁火), fire suppression.
However, in June of the ninth year of Jeongjo's reign, Jeongjo pointed out that the term "Musye Chulsin" was ambiguous. At that time, the conditions for becoming a Musye Chulsin were to be "a person outstanding in martial arts among the Musye Byeolgam" or to have passed the civil service examination. The word "Chulsin" originally applied only to those who had passed the examination, but the title was also given to "those outstanding in martial arts among the Musye Byeolgam" who had not passed the examination, which is why Jeongjo raised the issue. In response, new names were proposed, and the names finally suggested were "Chingunwi" (親軍衛), "Jangyongwi" (壯勇衛), and "Muyongwi" (武勇衛). Among these three candidates, the title Jangyongwi was granted based on the opinions of Gu Seon-bok and Hojo Panseo Kim Hwa-jin, and the Musye Chulsin Cheong became the Jangyong Cheong. All matters decided at this time were recorded in the Daejeon Tongpyeon, which meant that Jangyongwi and Jangyong Cheong were legalized as official organizations.
Jangyong Cheong
Even after the change from Musye Chulsin Cheong to Jangyong Cheong, the operating system remained the same. Changes in its operation began around the middle of the 11th year of Jeongjo's reign. A series of political incidents from the 8th to the 10th year of Jeongjo's reign promoted various divisions within political factions, and this served as a critical occasion for reorganizing the political forces formed throughout Jeongjo's reign. At this time, Gu Seon-bok, who had been Training Commander, was also removed, and Jeongjo took control of the leadership of the Jangyong Cheong. Subsequent changes related to the Jangyong Cheong included Seohyeser Dangsang Seo Yu-rin's full-scale interference in the financial affairs of the Jangyong Cheong, and the construction of the Jangyong Cheong's office building. These two developments meant that a foundation was laid for the Jangyong Cheong to fully separate from the Hullyeon Dogam and grow into an independent military headquarters.
Afterward, the posts of Hobang (戶房) and Byeongbang (兵房) appeared within the Jangyong Cheong, signaling the start of independent financial operations. According to the regulations, these officials were appointable if they were "not restricted by rank and capable of handling affairs," but when looking at the people appointed as Hobang and Byeongbang, they cannot be said to have held high positions compared to the commanders of central military headquarters. Moreover, the Hobang had a lower status within the Jangyong Cheong than the Byeongbang, which can be known from records that other soldiers of the Jangyong Cheong showed only a degree of respect to the Hobang. Simply put, the Hobang and Byeongbang were positions that managed rather than commanded the Jangyong Cheong, and the Hobang was a post whose priority was financial management rather than financial operations.
The second feature of the Jangyong Cheong's operating system was that, unlike before, it secured mounted troops (馬軍), the Seongi Unit (善騎隊), and infantry (步軍), the Jakdae Unit (作隊軍). Although the Jangyongwi operated with a scale of 50 men, unlike when it was the Musye Chulsin Cheong, its operating method was essentially the same. The Jangyong Cheong's Jakdae troops were organized by systematically imitating the Dogamgun of the Hullyeon Dogam, and the operation of the Seongi Unit and Jakdae troops became the basis for the Jangyong Cheong to participate in escort duties (扈衛) together with the Geumgun (禁軍) or the Samgunmun (三軍門) during royal processions (行幸). This can be seen from the fact that in April of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign, when Jeongjo made a royal procession to Yeongu-won, the tomb of Crown Prince Sado, to perform a jakheonrye (作獻禮), they first participated in the escort.
The differences between the Musye Chulsin Cheong and the Jangyong Cheong were, first, that it gained independence by escaping from the shadow of the Hullyeon Dogam, and second, that in addition to the palace guard centered on the Jangyongwi, it secured mounted and infantry troops capable of serving as escort forces.
Jangyongyeong
Initially it was the Jangyongwi (壯勇衛), but beginning in January of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign (1788), it began to be called Jangyongyeong (壯勇營) instead of Jangyong Cheong (壯勇廳). The point at which the name Jangyongyeong began to be used varies among sources; the earliest use was in the Geumwiyeong Deungnok (金衛營謄錄) in November of the 11th year of Jeongjo's reign. Afterward, in January of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign, it was recorded under the name Jangyongyeong in the Hunguk Deungnok (訓局謄錄), and it also began to appear in the Eoyeongcheong Deungnok, the Ilseongrok, and the Seungjeongwon Ilgi. Until then, both names, Jangyong Cheong and Jangyongyeong, were used interchangeably, but it appears that starting around January 20 of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign, only the name Jangyongyeong began to be used.
Jangyongyeong System
Changes in the Jangyongyeong System and Securing Hyanggun
The renamed Jangyongyeong began to secure military service resources by transferring them from existing military headquarters, and to recruit soldiers directly. Previously, apart from the Jangyongwi, most soldiers had been newly selected, but from the time the name was changed to Jangyongyeong, it began fully receiving soldiers transferred from central military headquarters. In addition, the Wolgwamiyeong (月課米) was provided to the Jangyongyeong. The Wolgwamiyeong was a fund in which the expenses for items such as the Jocheong Wolgwa (鳥銃月課), which each district paid to the central military headquarters, were converted into Daedongmi (大同米) and distributed to each military headquarters; it was an essential revenue source for central military headquarters, for procuring military equipment and the like. The provision of Wolgwamiyeong meant that it guaranteed a certain character as a central military headquarters. Considering the changes above, it can be seen that the likelihood of regarding the Jangyongyeong not as a simple guard unit but as a military headquarters of a certain scale or larger increased.
The second occasion for changes in the Jangyongyeong's operating system was the securing of Hyanggun (鄕軍, local troops). In July of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign, the Dunto (屯土) of Bangdong-ri, at the foot of Chuknyeongsan in Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi Province, was transferred to the Jangyongyeong as its Dunjeon (屯田, military farmland). This Dunto was land from which the Hojo collected public taxes (公稅) (the land where Chungjeonggong Hong Cheo-hu, one of the Chwahwasin, had settled and lived). Accordingly, Jeongjo ordered that this Dunto be returned, but the problem was that, as a result, there was no longer any way to secure the provisions (糧資) for the Gugun (驅軍). In other words, the Hojo had prepared the provisions from the tax revenue of this Dunto, but since the Dunto had been returned, the Hojo lost the means to prepare them. The solution to this problem appears in the Jangyongyeong Sinjeong Hyanggun Jeolmok (壯勇營新定鄕軍節目) issued on July 19. According to that document, the greatest problems for the people of the mountainous districts (山邑) of Gyeonggi were two: first, Yeopchi (獵雉), that is, pheasant hunting, and second, Napjeo (臘猪) hunting (wild boar hunting). Because the hunters of Yeopchi caused many abuses to the people of the region, the Yeopchi hunters were ultimately abolished, and the tribute (貢物) was changed so that instead of pheasants, other items would be offered as Bongjin (封進). As for Napjeo, the problem was that residents of the district were called Yeopjeo Gugun (獵猪驅軍) and were prevented from resting throughout the winter after farming, which caused abuses; the object of Bongjin was changed to pheasants, and for the Gugun, the "central government office" was instructed to devise measures for the problem, ultimately abolishing the abuses. The "central government office" mentioned here was none other than the Jangyongyeong.
Up to this point, all the soldiers secured by the Jangyongyeong had been residents of Hanseong-bu, so there were no Hyanggun residing in Gyeonggi Province. Therefore, in order to prepare the Gugun, it was necessary to secure Hyanggun. Accordingly, the Jangyongyeong's Hyanggun was prepared by transferring soldiers of the Sueocheong residing in Jipyeong, Yangeun, Gapyeong, and Paju. Jeongjo sought to resolve the burden of the Jangyongyeong's measures for securing Hyanggun by emphasizing the rationale that it was "not for the sake of the Jangyongyeong, but solely from the utmost intention of pitying the suffering of the people and eliminating the abuses of the relevant districts." The Jangyongyeong sought to operate Sangbeon (上番) troops but to resolve all the funds expended in the Sangbeon process through Dunjeon revenue. The meaning of Jeongjo's establishment and operation of Dunjeon was understood, first, as one means of realizing the ideal of the Jeongjeonje (井田制), and second, as a method of maintaining military strength without collecting additional taxes from the people, similar to the unity of soldiers and farmers (兵農一致) in the early Joseon period. The Jangyongyeong's method of operating Dunjeon first placed highest priority on securing the funds for the Hyanggun, and to minimize the problems arising from the collection of Dunse (屯稅), it granted many exemptions (蠲減), unlike the existing methods.
Strengthening the Status of Jangyongyeong
As time passed, the scale, role, and function of the Jangyongyeong gradually expanded, but the problem was its "status." In a royal response (批答) by Jeongjo to a memorial in March of the 12th year of Jeongjo's reign (March 6) by Jangyongyeong Byeongbang Yi Han-pung requesting replacement (體差), it can be seen that Jeongjo said: "Even a trivial Yeonggyo should not behave so disrespectfully toward the chief commander of the Haeyeong (海營), let alone the Byeongbang of this headquarters." Through this, it can be known that the Jangyongyeong Byeongbang was disrespected for some reason. Jeongjo tried to persuade him by citing several precedents. The first was that just as the Byeongbang of the Seungjeongwon protects the Byeongjo, the Byeongbang of the Jangyongyeong should have the same status; the second was that he set the rank of the Jangyongyeong Byeongbang by saying, "Its rank (位次) is above the commander of this headquarters, and its duties are next to those of the Minister of Military Affairs (兵曹判書)." However, even if one tries to artificially create the status of a government office, that status is not naturally given to the people within the office. Ultimately, work to raise the status of the Jangyongyeong office itself was carried out first. Since operating the Jangyongyeong under the Byeongbang–Hobang system after it had expanded beyond a certain scale was unreasonable, a Jeasang (提調) who could serve for a long term (久任) was needed, and accordingly, Seo Yu-rin, the Seonhyecheong Jeaesang who had focused on securing the Jangyongyeong's funds since the Jangyong Cheong system, was appointed as Jangyongyeong Jeaesang. The problems handled by the Jangyongyeong Jeaesang went beyond financial matters. The Jeaesang handled the Jangyongyeong's Chogi (草記, preliminary reports) and Hoegye (回啓, responses to the king), and by demoting the status of the Hobang, concentrated all authority in the Jeaesang. Afterward, the fact that in the 15th year of Jeongjo's reign the Geumwi Commander was appointed as Jangyongyeong Byeongbang shows that the status of the Jangyongyeong gradually rose. This meant that the Jangyongyeong had secured a status almost on par with the other military headquarters. Jeongjo's perception also began to change from this time. Jeongjo judged the Jangyongyeong to be a military headquarters with some hidden purpose beyond simple guard duty. However, he did not reveal at the time what that hidden purpose was.
Martial Arts Training of Jangyongyeong
In the case of the Hyanggun on Sangbeon duty for the Jangyongyeong, as a unit directly related to the defense of Hwaseong, the most extensive training consisted of Sibang (시방) and Pojin (포진), which involved firing various artillery pieces and conducting drills to move cannons and form battle lines, carried out every three days of each month. Additionally, for matskets (조총), trials were conducted together with Yueop-jeon (유엽전, pointed-arrow archery) in the form of Daebigyo (대비교), encouraging continuous training. Furthermore, both the Gyeonggun and the Hyanggun infantry were given many rewards to improve musket skills, such as awarding 1 bolt of cotton cloth to the Gyeonggun and the qualification to take the Jikbu examination to the Hyanggun if they hit six targets by firing muskets during Sasseup (사습). Beyond commanders and officers, archery, which was most widely practiced by the infantry, was tested in various forms, such as occasional Sisa (시사) and Jungsun (중순) contests.
For cavalry, the basic tests included archery such as Bosa-type Yueop-jeon, where arrows are shot from the ground, and Gicheu (기추), mounted archery shot from horseback, and separately they tested Mangsang-woldo (마상월도) and Mangsang-ssanggeom (마상쌍검), types of mounted martial arts used by cavalry in close combat. Also, mounted spear fighting (기창) was conducted in the form of combat, and to master various transformative movements such as Chomma (초마), sweeping left and right while riding at a gallop, and Deungjangsin (등리장신), riding while clinging to the side of a horse, they trained in Masangjae.
For infantry, the basic training was centered on the musket, a gunpowder weapon, and it can be confirmed that before learning weapon techniques they were tested on Gwonbeop (권법), a type of unarmed martial art intended to make the hands and feet agile. Also, in particular, 45 soldiers of each unit fought in combat with swords, and they practiced Yedo and Bonguk-geom (Shin-geom), types of Joseon swordsmanship widely known even in China under the name Joseon Sebeop. It can also be seen that they practiced Hyeopdo, a long-hafted sword similar to a spear, together with the blade shape of a sword that cuts to one side.
The individual martial arts training for close combat of the cavalry and infantry of the Jangyongyeong, as described above, was carried out according to the [Muyedobotongji] published in 1790 (14th year of Jeongjo's reign). This military manual was made on the principle of warp and weft in relation to the earlier tactical manual [Byeonghaktong], and as the Jangyongyeong's independent military headquarters system was established, it was the core individual martial arts manual that unified the military arts of all soldiers. This manual contains a total of 24 martial arts for cavalry and infantry, among which the Sipbanban or Sipgigi (十八般 / 十八技), used by infantry, follows exactly the contents of the [Muye Sinbo] published by Crown Prince Sado, Jeongjo's father, during his regency, thereby upholding his father's legacy. The six newly added mounted martial arts were added to strengthen cavalry tactics in the Jeongjo period, and this is in line with the addition of cavalry-only formations such as Mabyeong Hagjin-jin and Mabyeong Bongdun-jin in [Byeonghaktong], which differs from other military manuals.
Martial arts training through this [Muyedobotongji] was most actively disseminated centered on Hwaseong, where the Jangyongoe (outer command) was stationed. As a representative example, the [Bogun Yubang Jeolmok] of the Jangyongoe, which played the role of Hwaseong's defense force, states: "Self-training shall be conducted every day, and on the first and last days, one shall practice exactly as prescribed for the training ground; on the middle days, the Sipbanban martial arts shall be taught and tested according to the [Muyedobotongji]." Also, on the 11th day after entering duty, archery and cannon firing were conducted together, and military training for attacking at long range from atop the walls was also carried out. As for cavalry, in addition to the mounted martial arts listed in the [Muyedobotongji], they practiced Gicheu, shooting arrows at straw dummies from horseback, and Pyeonchu (편추), attacking straw dummies with a flail-like weapon, as well as musket training, to increase their use of cavalry tactics as a defensive force.
Also, the Jangyongoe, in order to defend Hwaseong, sometimes conducted Seongjo (城操), night and day wall-defense drills, together with the troops of the Jangyongnaeyeong. As a representative example, the [Wonhaeng Eumyo Jeongnyi Uigwe], which records the royal procession of Jeongjo held for a total of eight days from February 9 to 16 of the 19th year of Jeongjo's reign (1795), records the Hwaseong Seongjo as its most important part. In the night wall-guarding drills, ambush troops were deployed at various points along the walls, and afterward a training method was conducted in which signal systems, along with seop (섶, brush-bundle beacons) and five-colored double lanterns, were turned on and off. In particular, the training was not carried out by soldiers alone; all civilian households living within the Hwaseong walls participated and conducted training to defend the walls together. This can be regarded as a kind of joint military-civilian drill, preparing in advance for a situation in which a siege defense would require mobilization of the common people as well as soldiers.5
Abolition of Jangyongyeong
After Jeongjo, who actively supported and utilized the Jangyongyeong, passed away, perceptions of the Jangyongyeong changed. After Jeongjo's death, Kim Jo-sun, father-in-law of Sunjo of Joseon, and Park Jun-won, his maternal grandfather, served as Jangyong Daejang, but as time passed, the view that the Jangyongyeong should be dissolved and its enormous finances used became dominant. When Sunjo ascended the throne, he ordered the collection of slave documents from the Naesa (內司), each palace (各宮), and each office (各司), which were burned outside Donghwamun (敦化門), and ordered the Jangyongyeong to pay the wages (代錢) of those slaves.6
Due to these political conditions of the time, the Jangyongyeong was ultimately abolished in 1802 by order of Queen Dowager Jeongsun, Kim (Dowager Queen). The Jangyongoe, which had been stationed in Suwon to defend Hwaseong, was greatly reduced in size and reorganized into the Chongriyeong (摠理營). Hwaseong, too, naturally declined in status compared with the Jeongjo era.
Offices
- Naeyeong (內營): located in Hanseong-bu
- Jangyongsa (壯勇使), 1 person7
- Jeaesang (提調), 1 person
- Jongsagwan (從事官), 1 person
- Byeoljang (別將), 1 person
- Pachong (把摠)
- Seongijang (善騎將)
- Chogwan (哨官)
- Oeyeong (外營): located in Suwon (水原)
- Jangyong Oesa (壯勇外使), 1 person: concurrently held by the Suwon Yusu (governor)
Organization
- Naeyeong (內營)
- Chinbyeong (親兵), 1 Sa (司), 5 Cho (哨)8
- Hyanggun (鄕軍), 4 Sa, 20 Cho
- Oeyeong (外營)
- Byeolhyosa (別驍士), 2 Cho (哨)
- Mabyeong (馬兵), 4 Cho
- Sogo-gun (束伍軍), 26 Cho
- Pyohahgun (標下軍), 547 persons
- Chijungun (輜重軍), 200 persons
- Dokseong Sanseong (禿城山城)9
- Jangcho (壯抄), 2 Cho
- Abyeong (牙兵), 1 Cho
- Dunjangcho (屯壯抄), 68 persons
- Gunsubo (軍需保), 125 persons
References
- Park Beom, "The Process of Militarization of the Jangyongyeong in the Mid-Jeongjo Period," Suseon Sahak Society, January 2019
- Choi Hak-sam, "A Study on the Financing of the Hullyeon Dogam and Other Central Military Headquarters and the Jangyongyeong in the Joseon Dynasty," Korea Tax Research Forum, April 2016
- Kim Jun-hyeok, Jangyongyeong, the Strongest Army of Joseon Created by Jeongjo, Deumbom, January 2018
- Choi Hyeong-guk, Jeongjo's Martial Arts Thought and the Jangyongyeong, Kyungin Munhwasa, November 2015
Footnotes