Overview
The fall of Gojoseon was a war in which Emperor Wu of Han (漢 武帝) invaded Wiman Joseon in the autumn of 109 BCE (second year of the Yuanfeng era), and in the summer of the following year, 108 BCE (third year of the Yuanfeng era), captured its capital, Wanggeom Fortress (王險城, 王儉城). The Shiji (史記), chapter 115, "Biographies of Chosŏn," is nearly the only detailed record of it, and the Hanshu (漢書), "Treatise on Chosŏn," copied it almost verbatim. Gojoseon won early battles against the large Han army, but as it was besieged for a long time, its senior officials surrendered one after another and the king was assassinated, and the state collapsed. Han established the Four Commanderies of Lelang, Jinbeon, Imdun, and Xuantu on its former territory.
Dating note: The original sources mention only seasons, such as "autumn" and "summer." At that time, Han used a calendar prior to the Taichu calendar (104 BCE), in which the tenth month began the year. Therefore, this article gives only years and records seasons in the text. Location: The prevailing view holds that Wanggeom Fortress was in the Daedong River area of Pyongyang, and the maps follow this view. Alternative theories, including the Liaodong theory, are summarized below.
Background
Conflict between Wiman Joseon and Han
Wiman became a vassal of Han and subjugated neighboring peoples, but relations deteriorated under his grandson, King Ugeo (右渠王). The Shiji records that Ugeo accepted many people who had fled from Han, never paid tribute to the Han emperor, and blocked the states near Jinbeon from submitting documents to Han. From the standpoint of Emperor Wu, Wiman Joseon controlled the eastern trade routes and was a dangerous power that might ally with the Xiongnu. At this time, Han had already conquered Nam Viet (111 BCE) and Dongyue (110 BCE) in succession.
The She He incident
In 109 BCE, Han sent an envoy, She He (涉何), to rebuke and admonish Ugeo, but Ugeo ultimately refused to obey the imperial edict. On his return journey, She He reached the Paesu River (浿水), the border, where he had a Joseon bi-wang (裨王) named Jang (長), who was seeing him off, stabbed to death by his coachman. He then immediately crossed the river and fled into the frontier fortress. He reported to Emperor Wu that he had "killed a Joseon general." The emperor regarded this as an achievement and appointed She He Eastern Commandant (東部都尉) of Liaodong. Resentful, Joseon sent troops who ambushed and killed She He, and Emperor Wu then decided to go to war.
Course of events
Organization and advance of the Han forces
Emperor Wu recruited convicts to form his army. That autumn, General of the Lou-chuan (樓船將軍) Yang Bo (楊僕) set sail from the Qi region and crossed the Bohai Sea, while General of the Left (左將軍) Xun Che (荀彘) set out from Liaodong to attack Ugeo. The Shiji gives a force of "兵五萬人" ("fifty thousand troops"), but depending on how the sentence is punctuated, this can be read either as the total of both armies or as the land army alone. The "Gojoseon" entry in the Encyclopedia of Korean Culture summarizes it as 50,000 land troops and 7,000 naval troops. The 7,000 naval troops refers to the "7,000 soldiers of Qi" that Yang Bo led and that reached Wanggeom Fortress first.
Early Gojoseon victories
Ugeo sent out troops to block the Han forces at dangerous passes. Under Xun Che, Zhubu (卒正) Duo (多) led Liaodong troops forward first, but was defeated and scattered, and Duo fled back and was beheaded according to military law. Meanwhile, Yang Bo arrived at Wanggeom Fortress first with 7,000 Qi soldiers. Ugeo, guarding the fortress, noticed that the Lou-chuan force was small, left the walls, and attacked. The Lou-chuan force was defeated and scattered. Yang Bo lost his troops and hid in the mountains for more than ten days, gradually regathering the scattered soldiers. Xun Che also attacked the Joseon forces west of the Paesu River but could not defeat them.
Breakdown of negotiations
As the two generals failed to achieve results, Emperor Wu sent Wei Shan (衛山) to persuade Ugeo, backed by military pressure. Ugeo bowed his head to the envoy and, saying that he had wanted to surrender but feared that the two generals would deceive him and have him killed, requested surrender. He sent his heir to apologize and offered 5,000 horses and provisions. However, when more than 10,000 men accompanying the heir crossed the Paesu River carrying weapons, Wei Shan and Xun Che suspected a rebellion and demanded that they lay down their arms, since they had already surrendered. The heir, also suspecting that he would be deceived and killed, ultimately did not cross the river and returned. When Wei Shan returned and reported, Emperor Wu executed him.
Siege of Wanggeom Fortress
Xun Che defeated the Joseon forces in the Paesu area, advanced, reached the foot of Wanggeom Fortress, and encircled the northwest of the fortress. Yang Bo also arrived and set up camp to the south of the fortress. However, Ugeo defended it firmly, and after several months the fortress had still not fallen.
Division within the Han command
The Shiji describes the discord between the two generals in detail. Xun Che had been a shizhong (侍中) favored by the emperor and commanded fierce soldiers from Yan and Dai. Elated by victory, he became arrogant. By contrast, Yang Bo's Qi soldiers had already suffered heavy losses while crossing the sea and had been defeated in the first battle, so their morale was low, and Yang Bo constantly leaned toward a peace settlement. Joseon officials secretly negotiated surrender terms with Yang Bo but kept delaying a decision. Xun Che repeatedly set dates for a joint attack, but Yang Bo did not comply. Xun Che also tried to obtain a surrender on his own, but Joseon inclined toward Yang Bo. Xun Che came to suspect that Yang Bo was colluding with Joseon to cover up his defeat.
Emperor Wu sent Gongsun Sui (公孫遂), Grand Administrator of Jinan (濟南太守), and gave him authority to handle matters as the situation required. Gongsun Sui listened to Xun Che, summoned Yang Bo to Xun Che's camp, arrested him on the spot, merged the Lou-chuan forces into Xun Che's command, and reported this. Emperor Wu, however, had Gongsun Sui executed.
Surrender of the ruling elite and assassination of King Ugeo
Xun Che, now commanding both armies, hurried the attack. The Joseon Minister (相) No In (路人), Minister Han Eum (韓陰), Nigye-sang Cham (尼谿相 參), and General Wang Gyeop (王唊) conspired together, saying: "At first we wanted to surrender to the Lou-chuan force, but the Lou-chuan general was captured. Now the General of the Left alone commands the army, and the fighting has become more urgent, yet the king refuses to surrender." Han Eum, Wang Gyeop, and No In fled and surrendered to Han, and No In died on the way. In the summer of 108 BCE (third year of the Yuanfeng era), Nigye-sang Cham had people assassinate King Ugeo and then surrendered to Han.
Resistance and fall of Seong Gi
Even so, Wanggeom Fortress did not fall. This was because Seong Gi (成巳), a minister of Ugeo, again rose in rebellion and attacked Han officials. Xun Che had Ugeo's son Jang-hang (長降) and No In's son Choe (最) admonish the people within the fortress, and then had Seong Gi killed. With this, Joseon was pacified, and Han established four commanderies on its territory.
Results
Rewards and punishments
- The Joseon people who surrendered to Han were enfeoffed as marquises. Cham became Marquis Hwacheong (澅淸侯), Han Eum became Marquis Jeokjeo (荻苴侯), Wang Gyeop became Marquis Pyeongju (平州侯), Jang-hang became Marquis Gi (幾侯), and Choe, who had achieved merit even after his father's death, became Marquis Onyang (溫陽侯).
- By contrast, the Han generals were punished. Xun Che was executed in public (棄市) for quarreling over merit, being jealous, and thwarting strategy. Yang Bo, when he reached Lie Mouth (洌口), should have waited for Xun Che but attacked on his own initiative and lost many soldiers. For this he was liable to the death penalty, but he paid a fine to atone and became a commoner.
- Sima Qian commented that "both commanders were disgraced, and none of the generals became a marquis." This is a sober assessment of a war in which a large army was mobilized yet struggled because of internal strife.
Impact
- Han established the Four Commanderies on the former territory of Gojoseon.
- Many Gojoseon refugees migrated south, influencing the development of Samhan society. The Samguk sagi (三國史記) records that the six villages of Saro State were settled in mountain valleys by "Joseon refugees."
- The Weilüe (魏略) records that before Ugeo's fall, Yeokgye-gyeong (歷谿卿), a minister of Joseon, remonstrated, but his advice was not accepted, so he led more than 2,000 households eastward to Jinguk (辰國).
Interpretations and debates
- Location of Wanggeom Fortress: The prevailing view places Wanggeom Fortress in the Pyongyang area, because Joseon County (朝鮮縣) of Lelang Commandery was located at the Toseong-dong Earthen Fortress (Lelang Earthen Fortress) on the south bank of the Daedong River in Pyongyang. However, it has not been confirmed whether the seat of Lelang Commandery and Wanggeom Fortress were exactly the same place. There are also theories placing it in the Liaodong region or the area of present-day Hebei.
- Location of the Paesu River: The Amnok River, Cheongcheon River, and Hun River theories compete with one another. Interpretations of Xun Che's route of advance also differ depending on where the border between Gojoseon and Han is placed.
- Troop numbers: It is unclear whether "兵五萬人" refers to the combined total of the naval and land armies or to the land army alone.
- Year of fall: Following the summer of the third year of the Yuanfeng era in the Shiji, 108 BCE is the prevailing view. Yang Bo's deployment was in the autumn of the second year of the Yuanfeng era (109 BCE).
References