Dangun (檀君, 壇君) or Dangun Wanggeom (檀君王儉) is a legendary figure traditionally regarded as the mythical progenitor of the Korean people and the founder of Gojoseon.12
In the history of the Korean people, he has been venerated as their ancestor, and in religions such as Daejonggyo he is also an object of worship.3 "Dangun" appears to be a title, and he is also known as Wanggeom and Wangheom (王險), among other names. He is passed down as the progenitor of the Korean people in Korean historical works such as the Samguk yusa, the Jewang ungi, the Veritable Records of King Sejong, and the Outer Records of the Dongguk tonggam,12 and today both South Korea and North Korea recognize him as the ancestor of the Korean people and include him in their historical records. Apart from this, there are many debates today over whether Dangun actually existed. Mainstream academia regards Dangun either as a figure of myth or as a historical title referring to the ruler of Gojoseon, whereas North Korea and some non-mainstream scholars regard Dangun as a historically existing person.
Etymology
Dangun is generally known to derive from words such as Mongolian tenggri, meaning "heaven," Turkic tangri, meaning "god," and danggol/danggolle, meaning "shaman."4
Professors Lee Seung-ho and Oh Kang-won proposed that Dangun means "bright," that is, "light," and thus the name means "Balkkalim" (Bright King).5 They further argued that the "단 (檀)" in sacred tree sindansu corresponds to "Baldal" (Korean for the Pteroceltis/"sandalwood" tree), the "백 (白)" in Taebaeksan corresponds to "bal-" (bright), and "산 (山)" corresponds to "-dal,"6 so that all of these are related.7 Meanwhile, Kim Yeong-hwang criticized this view, arguing that the Middle Korean form of "bright" is balgeuda/bulgeuda and that the loss of "ㄹ" could not have occurred.8
Professor Lee Byeong-seon interpreted "Baldal" in "檀 (Baldal-tree 단)" as bal + geu + dal and proposed that its meaning is "founding king."9
Life
Dangun was the eldest child of Hwanung and Ungnyeo. Records of Dangun's life are briefly described in the Samguk yusa, the Jewang ungi, the Veritable Records of King Sejong, and the Outer Records of the Dongguk tonggam. It is generally said that around 2333 BC,1011 he established Joseon with his capital at Asadal (阿斯達) or Pyongyang and ruled for more than 1,000 years. Because the claim that he ruled Gojoseon for over 1,000 years is not realistic, since the Joseon period it has been interpreted that "Dangun" does not refer to a single person but to the successive kings of Gojoseon over many generations.12
According to the Goryeosa, the Geography Section of the Veritable Records of King Sejong, the Eungjesiju, and the Sinjeung Dongguk yeoji seungnam, Dangun had his three sons build Samnangseong (三朗城) and dispatched his crown prince Buru (夫婁) to attend the Tushan Covenant (塗山會盟) of Yu the Great of the Xia dynasty.
Literary Records
In the Goguryeo section of the Gijeon chapter of the Samguk yusa, while discussing the legend of Jumong = Dongmyeong, it cites the Dangungi (壇君記) and states: "Dangun became intimate with the daughter of the River God of Seohа and had a son, naming him Buru" (壇君與西河河伯之女要親 有産子名曰夫婁). This means that the kings of Buyeo, the northern Buyeo, were descendants of Dangun. It is unknown what kind of book the Dangungi was, but it may at least suggest that the authority of the Buyeo kings was linked to the Dangun tradition. (Jeong Gyeong-hui, 1983)
Looking at the myths related to Dangun and Dongmyeong, many common features can be seen. That is, the mother of Dongmyeong or Jumong was confined by King Geumwa, which is of the same type as the Dangun myth in the Samguk yusa in which Dangun's mother, the bear, "abstained from sunlight for three weeks and seven days" (三七日 不見日光 忌). The custom of holding rites at the Sushin cave (隧神穴) in Goguryeo society is related to this. Also, in Yi Gyu-bo's Dongmyeong wangpyeon, citing the Gusamguksa, it describes Jumong's death as "In the ninth month of autumn, the king ascended to heaven and did not come down. He was forty years old at that time" (秋九月 王升天不下 時年四十), which means that he returned to heaven, the homeland of Hwanung, Dangun's father. Therefore, it can be seen that the legacy of the Dangun myth lies quite thickly beneath the Dongmyeong legend. (Jeong Gyeong-hui, 1983)
Meanwhile, Biryu State (沸流國), which in early Goguryeo was a group that succeeded to the royal lineage and later became Sonobu (消奴部), one of the five bu (部) constituting Goguryeo, also held a view of Dangun as its progenitor, and this attracts attention because it allows us to trace the historical relationship between Goguryeo and Dangun.
Regarding King Songyang (松壤) of Biryu State, Yi Seung-hyu's Jewang ungi cites the "Dongmyeong bongi" (東明本紀) of the Gusamguksa and says the following: "King Songyang of Biryu said, 'I am a descendant of the immortals, and my family has been kings for generations. Today, you have only recently founded your state; would it not be proper for you to become my vassal?' Is this not also a descendant of Dangun?" (比流王松壤謂曰 予以仙人之後 累世爲王 今君造國日淺. 爲我附庸可乎 則此亦疑檀君之後也). This shows a view that equated the immortals (仙人) with Dangun, and demonstrates that the Dangun consciousness existed even in the early founding period of Goguryeo. (Park Gyeong-cheol, 1996)
In the mural tomb of Gakjeochong (角抵塚) in the Ji'an area, famous for its wrestling paintings, it has been confirmed that a bear and a tiger are shown watching a wrestling match under a tree. In a painting known as the Baekhui gija-do (百戱伎樂圖) of Changcheon Tomb No. 1, the central tree and the woman facing it are said to be connected with the scene of Ungnyeo's conception of Dangun. In particular, an animal like a bear crouching in a cave on the left side of the painting is said to be connected with the Dangun myth. (Kang Ryong-nam, 1996)
This shows that the Dangun myth is concretely connected with Goguryeo, and because it appears in mural tombs generally dated to the 5th century, it further raises the debate over the dating of the Dangun myth. However, the Dangun-progenitor consciousness of the Songyang group, which existed prior to the Jumong group, was maintained as a non-mainstream view within Goguryeo society, and after passing through Unified Silla and Goryeo, it is understood to have spread and been newly re-established as an ancestral consciousness of the entire people. This seems to be the reason why the Dangun myth did not have the same transmission process as the founding myths of the Three Kingdoms and was emphasized only later. (Jo Beop-jong, 2006)
The records that Jumong was a son of Dangun and that Buru, king of Buyeo, was born through the marriage of Dangun and the daughter of the River God, are thought to reflect that the founding forces of several early states in Korea shared the same lineage, or were regarded as sharing it. Therefore, the Dangun myth is not merely the founding myth of Gojoseon but also a myth related to the formation of Korean states, and furthermore it has historical significance in that it became the myth of the formation of the Korean people, composed of the inhabitants of many states represented by Joseon. (Lee Jong-uk, 1993)
The texts with records of Dangun include the Samguk yusa and the Jewang ungi, which are records from the Goryeo period. No mention of Dangun appears in earlier records. The Samguk sagi does not contain the word Dangun, but the phrase "Seonin Wanggeom" (선인 왕검) appears.
Regarding the birth and life of Dangun, the Samguk yusa records that Dangun Wanggeom was the son born from the marriage of Hwanung and Ungnyeo. He set his capital at Pyongyang Fortress and named the state Joseon. He later moved his capital to Baeksan Mountain, Asadal. There he ruled the country for 1,500 years. In 1122 BC (the 13th year of King Wu of Zhou, the year Gimyo), King Wu enfeoffed Gija (箕子) in Joseon, and Dangun then moved to Jangdanggyeong (藏唐京). Later he returned, hid in Asadal, and became the mountain spirit (山神), at which time he was 1,908 years old.13 Meanwhile, the Jewang ungi transmits a slightly different record. The Jewang ungi cites the Bongi (本記) and says that a granddaughter of Hwanung, who had descended from heaven, married the spirit of the divine sandalwood tree (神檀樹), and gave birth to Dangun. It is said that Dangun founded Gojoseon and ruled for 1,028, 1,038, or 1,048 years,14 after which he became the mountain spirit of Asadal. In the Jewang ungi, Dangun is written with the character for "sandalwood tree" (檀).
Meanwhile, the earliest record in which the term Wanggeom (王儉) first appears is the 21st year of King Dongcheon of Goguryeo (247 AD) in the Samguk sagi. In the record of when King Dongcheon moved the capital to Pyongyang, a note in the margin states that "Pyongyang was originally the home of the immortal Wanggeom (原文, 平壤者本仙人王儉之宅也 或云王之都王險)." This is the first record in which Wanggeom appears as a personal name. When it is not a personal name, Wanggeom or Wanghеom (王險) also appears as the capital of Gojoseon, which was the capital of Wiman. The Samguk sagi records both the record of the immortal Wanggeom and that the place where the immortal Wanggeom became king and established his capital was Wanghеom.15
In addition, there are detailed records of Dangun that appeared in modern times, such as the Gyuwon sahwa, the Dangi gosa, and the Hwandan Gogi, but academia has judged these records to be forgeries and does not recognize them. Only some amateur historians claim that these records are not forgeries but the truth.161718
According to the Samguk yusa, Dangun is presumed to belong to the Hae clan. In the Samguk yusa, Haeburu is recorded as the son of Haemosu, and based on the record in the Dangungi that Dangun had a son with the daughter of the River God of Seoha and named him Buru, inferring that Haemosu was Dangun leads to the Hae surname.
In the Dongmyeong Seongwang section of the Goguryeo chapter of the Samguk sagi, it is recorded that the descendant of Dangun was Go Jumong (高朱蒙).
初高句麗之始祖, 姓高氏, 諱朱蒙, 北夫餘王解夫婁之孫, 金蛙之子也。出自天帝子解慕漱, 與河伯女郁留婚而生朱蒙。少有奇異之相, 七歲能作弓矢, 百發百中。其國人畏之, 謀殺焉。
The founding ancestor of Goguryeo, Go Jumong (高朱蒙), was the grandson of King Hae Buru (解夫婁) of Northern Buyeo (北扶餘) and the son of King Geumwa (金蛙), that is, he was a descendant of Dangun (檀君). His bones and bearing were extraordinary and great, and at the age of seven he made bows and arrows himself and hit every target, so his seven brothers envied his talent and plotted to kill him.
Perception of Dangun
Dangun began to attract attention in the late Goryeo period during the resistance against the Mongols (大蒙抗爭), and from the Joseon period onward he was fully venerated as the national founder (國祖). During the reign of Sejong, a shrine enshrining Dangun and King Dongmyeong was built in Pyongyang, and state sacrifices were offered there; in addition, a Samseong Hall (三聖堂) or Samseongsa shrine enshrining the spirit tablets of Hwanin, Hwanung, and Dangun was also built on Mount Guwol in Munhwa County, Hwanghae Province.
In the late Joseon period, Dangun was greatly emphasized as the focal point of the Korean people in resistance to the contest of foreign powers, and he developed even into a religion such as Dangun-gyo (檀君敎). Thus, Dangun, having emerged as the focal point of nationalism, played a major role as the spiritual foundation of the independence movement during the Japanese colonial period. Also, through the Daejonggyo and independence movement forces, "forged" texts (僞書) such as the Daedong sagang and the Gyuwon sahwa, which exaggerated the history of the Dangun era from a nationalist perspective, were compiled.19 On the other hand, the Japanese or pro-Japanese groups used Dangun religiously and academically to pacify public sentiment, and also exploited him for the imperialization policies such as the Nissen dōsoron (Japan-Korea common ancestry theory).
After liberation, research on Dangun in South Korea focused on the historical meaning he held in Gojoseon society. Dangun Wanggeom is interpreted as a priest-king who was the chief priest and military leader of Gojoseon society; "Dangun" retains much of a priestly character, while "Wanggeom" carries the meaning of a great sovereign ruling the state.20 In other words, he is a leader of unity of religion and government (祭政一致).21 Viewed from the distribution of dialects and comparative linguistics as well, it is understood that he refers to a figure who combined priestly and political leadership.22 Choe Namseon noted that the shaman was called "danggol," and interpreted Dangun as meaning a priest; he also argued that, since 檀 is another expression for "altar" (壇), Dangun should be written as "壇君." In response to Choe Namseon's observations, there is a criticism that calling a female shaman "danggolne" is simply because female shamans live in villages with a Seonangdang (village shrine), and is unrelated to Dangun.23
In North Korea, after liberation, the existing position was to view Dangun and the Dangun myth as a founding myth fabricated to justify the process by which political power was established in Gojoseon.24 However, around 1994, when the Tomb of Dangun was excavated, the position changed, and it was asserted that the Dangun myth reflects historical fact and that Dangun was a real person. Furthermore, it claims that Dangun was the first king of Gojoseon, a state established by the Korean people, and that his birth, founding, and tomb are all in Pyongyang.25 Near Pyongyang there is the Tomb of Dangun, which North Korea excavated and rebuilt, but as to whether this is authentic, the academic community of South Korea is critical. In particular, the South Korean historical community views the sudden change in position since the 1990s as caused by political factors in which Juche was emphasized as North Korea's view of history.26
Public Perception
Since the 1980s, with the spread of forged texts such as the Hwandan Gogi, the royal genealogy of the successive Dangun kings also spread among the public. Meanwhile, in 2007, in line with archaeological excavation results that allowed the dating of the Bronze Age to be placed earlier than before, the guidelines for the description of Gojoseon in national history textbooks were changed so that the chronology of Gojoseon is described somewhat more definitively. However, the media reported this in a sensational way, claiming that it "revised Dangun and Gojoseon from myth to history," which caused public misunderstanding. The historical community and the National Institute of Korean History expressed concern that such media reports were not true.27
Dangun in Religion
From the Joseon period onward, Dangun was revered among the common people as a national founder together with Hwanin and Hwanung, and the state also built shrines to worship him. It seems that beliefs related to Dangun were especially active in the Hwanghae Province region. As foreign encroachment intensified in the late Joseon period, veneration of Dangun gradually strengthened, and it even developed into Daejonggyo, which takes Hwanin, Hwanung, and Dangun as objects of faith. In addition, several minor religions that worship Dangun have also appeared.
Dangun in Historical Sources
Weishu
In the Weishu (魏書) cited in the Samguk yusa, Dangun Wanggeom is recorded as having founded a state at Asadal. However, the Weishu in fact contains no related record.2829
Gogi
The Gogi (古記) is no longer extant and was cited in the Samguk yusa. In the 50th year of the reign of Tang Yao, Dangun made Pyongyang Fortress his capital and founded Gojoseon, then moved the capital to Asadal and ruled for 1,500 years.
Dangun Gogi
The Dangun Gogi (檀君古記) is no longer extant and was cited in the Geography Section (〈지리지〉) of the Veritable Records of King Sejong. Only three generations of Gojoseon's rulers are recorded: Dangun, Buru, and Gumwa (金蛙).
Budoji
Only three generations of Gojoseon's rulers are recorded: Imgeom-ssi (壬儉氏), Buru-ssi (夫婁氏), and Eupru-ssi (浥婁氏).
Dangun in Forged Texts
In the records of the Gyuwon sahwa, the Dangi gosa, and the Hwandan Gogi, which academia has judged to be forgeries, the reign lengths and detailed reigns of the 47 successive Dangun who ruled Gojoseon are recorded. These histories largely agree on the personal names of the 47 Dangun, but show great differences in reign lengths and detailed accounts of their rule. In particular, the Hwandan Gogi, the latest of these to be made public, records together the reign contents that appear in the Gyuwon sahwa and the Dangi gosa respectively, so there is a high possibility that it copied both books.
The common royal titles of the 47 Dangun are as follows.
Joseon Sanggosa
It lasted from 2333 BC to 1285 BC, a span of 1,048 years.
Dangi Gosa
It lasted from BC 2512 to BC 416, a span of 2,096 years.
Hwandan Gogi
It lasted from 2333 BC to 238 BC, a span of 2,096 years.
References
- Iryeon (1281). 〈Book 1〉. 《Samguk yusa》.
- Yi Seung-hyu, 《Jewang ungi》
- 《Geography Section of the Veritable Records of King Sejong》
- Buk Aeja, 《Gyuwon sahwa》, translated by Go Dong-yeong, Hanppuri, 2005
- Yi Yu-rip, 《Hwandan Gogi》, Gwangoihaesa, 1979
- Park Geum, 《Budoji》, translated by Kim Eun-su, annotated, Hanmunhwa, 2002
- 《Dangi Gosa》, Hanppuri, 1986
Footnotes