Maimonides (문서 활동)

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r71155위키백과봇2026-10-15	1	Moses ben Maimon[^1] (died 12 December 1204), commonly known as Maimonides[^2] and also referred to by the [[Hebrew acronym]] Rambam,[^3] was a [[Sephardic law and customs\|Sephardic Jewish rabbi]] who is widely acknowledged as one of the most prolific and influential [[Torah scholars]] of the [[Middle Ages]].
	2
	3	Originally from [[Córdoba, Spain\|Córdoba]], where he was born on [[Passover Eve]] of 1135 or 1138,[^4][^5] his family was exiled from [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule\|Muslim-ruled Spain]] when they refused to convert to [[Islam]] shortly after the [[Almohad Caliphate]] conquered the [[Almoravid dynasty]] in 1148.[^6][^7][^8] Over the course of the next two decades, Maimonides resided in [[Fez, Morocco\|Fez]], [[Acre, Israel\|Acre]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Islamic Cairo\|Cairo]] before finally settling in [[Fustat]] between 1168 and 1171. During this period, he advanced his vocations and became renowned for his achievements as an [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world\|astronomer]], [[Jewish philosophy\|philosopher]], and [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world\|physician]]—even being appointed to serve as personal physician to [[Saladin]] of the [[Ayyubid Sultanate]].
	4
	5	Most contemporary Jews as far as [[History of the Jews in Iraq\|Iraq]] and [[History of the Jews in Yemen\|Yemen]] acclaimed Maimonides' writings on [[Halakha\|halakha]] and [[Jewish ethics]]. Yet, while he rose to lead the [[History of the Jews in Egypt\|Jewish community in Egypt]], he also had many loud critics, particularly in [[History of the Jews in Spain\|Spain]]. He continued to live in Fustat until his death in 1204 and is said to have been buried in [[Tiberias]]. Accordingly, the [[Tomb of Maimonides]] in Tiberias holds importance as a Jewish pilgrimage site.
	6
	7	To date, Maimonides is recognized as one of the foremost [[Posek\|rabbinic decisors]] and his copious work comprises a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume [[Mishneh Torah]] still carries significant canonical authority in [[Judaism]] as a codification of halakha,[^9] as do his [[Jewish principles of faith\|thirteen principles of faith]]. Maimonides' era is considered by many to mark the end of the [[Jewish Golden Age in Spain]], owing to the ubiquitous persecution of his family and the Sephardic Jewish community in general, though others assert that it lasted until the [[Christian reconquest\|Christian Reconquista]] concluded in the 15th century.
	8
	9	Aside from being revered by [[Jewish history\|Jewish historians]], Maimonides features very prominently in the history of [[Science in the medieval Islamic world\|Islamic science]]. Influenced by [[Aristotle]], [[Al-Farabi\|al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna\|ibn Sina]], and his contemporary [[Averroes\|ibn Rushd]], his work as a polymath contributed to the [[Islamic Golden Age]] and was regarded highly in many parts of the [[Muslim world]].
	10
	11	## Name
	12
	13	Maimonides' Hebrew name was Moses son of Rabbi Maimon the [[Al-Andalus\|Spaniard]] ([[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]]: מֹשֶׁה בֵּרַבִּי מַיְמוֹן הַסְּפָרדִּי, [[Romanization of Hebrew\|romanized]]: Mōše bēRabbî Maymōn has-Səfārdî).[^10] In [[Medieval Hebrew]], he was usually called ר״ם (Ram), which is short for "our Rabbi Moshe"; he is oftentimes referred to as רמב״ם (Rambam), which is short for "our Rabbi, Moshe son of Maimon".
	14
	15	His [[Arabic name]] was Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin Maimūn bin ʿUbaydallāh al-Qurṭubī ([[Arabic language\|Arabic]]: أَبُو عِمْرَان مُوسَى بْن مَيْمُون بْن عُبَيْد ٱللّٰه ٱلْقُرْطُبِيّ, Moses "[[Kunya (Arabic)\|son of]] [[Amram]]"[^11] son of Maymun, son of Obadiah the [[Córdoba, Spain\|Cordoban]]),[^12] or oftentimes more simply, as Moses son of Maymun (موسى بن ميمون).
	16
	17	In Greek, the Hebrew [[Ben (Hebrew)\|ben]] ('son of') becomes the [[Patronymic\|patronymic]] suffix [\-ίδης](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ίδης#Greek) (\-ides), forming Μωυσής Μαϊμωνίδης "Mōusēs Maimōnidēs".
	18
	19	He is sometimes known as "The Great Eagle" (Hebrew: הנשר הגדול, romanized: haNesher haGadol).[^13]
	20
	21	## Biography
	22
	23	### Early life
	24
	25	Maimonides was born 1138 (or 1135) in Córdoba in the [[Muslim]]\-ruled [[Almoravid dynasty]], at the end of the [[Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain]] after the first centuries of Muslim rule. His father, [[Maimon ben Joseph]], was a [[Beth din\|dayyan]] or rabbinic judge.[^14]
	26
	27	Maimonides [[Torah study\|studied Torah]] under his father, who had in turn studied under [[Joseph ibn Migash]], a student of [[Isaac Alfasi]]. At an early age, Maimonides developed an interest in [[Science in the medieval Islamic world\|contemporary science]] and [[Islamic philosophy\|philosophy]]. He read [[Ancient Greek philosophy\|ancient Greek philosophy]] accessible via Arabic translations and was deeply immersed in the sciences and learning of [[Islamic culture]].[^15]
	28
	29	### Exile from Spain
	30
	31	A [[Berbers\|Berber]] dynasty, the [[Almohad Caliphate\|Almohads]], conquered Córdoba in 1148 and abolished [[Dhimmi\|dhimmi]] status (i.e., state protection of non-Muslims ensured through payment of the [[Jizya\|jizya]] tax) in some territories. The loss of this status forced Jewish and Christian communities to choose between [[Forced conversion to Islam\|conversion to Islam]], [[Martyrdom\|martyrdom]], or [[Exile\|exile]].[^16] Many Jews were forced to convert, but due to suspicion by the authorities of fake conversions, the new converts had to wear identifying clothing that set them apart and made them subject to public scrutiny.[^17]
	32
	33	Maimonides' family, along with many other Jews, chose exile. For the next ten years, Maimonides moved about in southern Spain and North Africa, eventually settling in [[Fez, Morocco\|Fas]]. Some say that his teacher in Fez was [[Yehuda Ha-Cohen Ibn Susan]], until the latter was killed in 1165.[^18]
	34
	35	During this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the [[Mishnah]] during 1166–1168.[^19]
	36
	37	#### Sojourn to the Holy Land
	38
	39	Following this sojourn in Morocco, he lived in [[Acre, Israel\|Acre]] with his father and brother, arriving on May 16, 1165.[^20] They lived there for five months.[^21] In October, he visited [[Jerusalem]], where he prayed at the [[Temple Mount]]. He wrote that this day of visiting the Temple Mount was a day of holiness for him and his descendants.[^22] He then visited the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].[^23]
	40
	41	#### Settlement in Egypt
	42
	43	He and his family settled in [[Fustat]] in [[Fatimid Caliphate]]\-controlled Egypt by 1168.[^24] There is mention that Maimonides first settled in [[Alexandria]], and moved to Fustat only in 1171.[^25][^26] While in [[Cairo]], he studied in a [[Yeshiva\|yeshiva]] attached to a small [[Maimonides Synagogue\|synagogue]], which now bears his name.[^27]
	44
	45	Maimonides was soon instrumental in helping rescue Jews taken captive during the Christian [[Amalric of Jerusalem]]'s siege of the southeastern [[Nile Delta]] town of [[Bilbeis]]. He sent five letters to the Jewish communities of [[Lower Egypt]] asking them to pool money together to pay the [[Ransom\|ransom]]. The money was collected and then given to two judges sent to the Kingdom of Jerusalem to negotiate with the Crusaders. The captives were eventually released.[^28]
	46
	47	#### Death of his brother David
	48
	49	Following this success, the Maimonides family, hoping to increase their wealth, gave their savings to his brother, the youngest son David ben Maimon, a merchant. Maimonides directed his brother to procure goods only at the port of [[ʿAydhab]] along the [[Red Sea]]. After a long, arduous trip through the desert, however, David was unimpressed by the goods on offer there. Against his brother's wishes, David boarded a ship for [[Indian subcontinent\|India]], since great wealth was to be found in [[Eastern world\|the East]].[^29] Before he could reach his destination, David drowned at sea sometime between 1169 and 1177. The death of his brother caused Maimonides to become sick with grief.
	50
	51	In a letter discovered in the [[Cairo Geniza]], he wrote:
	52
	53	> The greatest misfortune that has befallen me during my entire life—worse than anything else—was the demise of the saint, [[May their memory be a blessing\|may his memory be blessed]], who drowned in the [[Indian Ocean\|Indian sea]], carrying much money belonging to me, to him, and to others, and left with me a little daughter and a widow. On the day I received that terrible news I fell ill and remained in bed for about a year, suffering from a sore boil, fever, and depression, and was almost given up. About eight years have passed, but I am still mourning and unable to accept consolation. And how should I console myself? He grew up on my knees, he was my brother, \[and\] he was my student.[^30]
	54
	55	### Leadership of Egypt's Jewish community
	56
	57	Around 1171, Maimonides was appointed the nagid of the Egyptian Jewish community.[^27] [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]] believes the leadership he displayed during the [[Pidyon shvuyim\|ransoming of the Crusader captives]] led to this appointment.[^31] However, he was replaced by [[Sar Shalom ben Moses]] in 1173. Over the controversial course of Sar Shalom's appointment, during which Sar Shalom was accused of [[Tax farming\|tax farming]], Maimonides excommunicated and fought with him for several years until Maimonides was appointed Nagid in 1195. [[Abraham bar Hillel]] wrote a scathing description of Sar Shalom in his Megillat Zutta while praising Maimonides as "the light of east and west and unique master and marvel of the generation."[^32][^33]
	58
	59	### Physician for the Ayyubid dynasty
	60
	61	With the loss of the family funds tied up in David's business venture, Maimonides assumed the vocation of physician, for which he was to become famous. He had trained in medicine in both Spain and in Fez. Gaining widespread recognition, he was appointed court physician to [[Qadi al-Fadil]], the chief secretary to Sultan [[Saladin]], then to Saladin himself; after whose death he remained a physician to the [[Ayyubid dynasty]].[^34]
	62
	63	In his medical writings, Maimonides described many conditions, including [[Asthma\|asthma]], [[Diabetes\|diabetes]], [[Hepatitis\|hepatitis]], and [[Pneumonia\|pneumonia]], and he emphasized moderation and a healthy lifestyle.[^35] His treatises became influential for generations of physicians. He was knowledgeable about Greek and Arabic medicine, and followed the principles of [[Humorism\|humorism]] in the tradition of [[Galen]]. He did not blindly accept authority but used his own observation and experience.[^35] Julia Bess Frank indicates that Maimonides in his medical writings sought to interpret works of authorities so that they could become acceptable.[^34] Maimonides displayed in his interactions with patients attributes that today would be called [[Intercultural communication\|intercultural awareness]] and respect for the patient's [[Autonomy\|autonomy]].[^36] Although he frequently wrote of his longing for solitude in order to come closer to God and to extend his reflections—elements considered essential in his philosophy to the prophetic experience—he gave over most of his time to caring for others.[^37] In a famous letter, Maimonides describes his daily routine. After visiting the Sultan's palace, he would arrive home exhausted and hungry, where "I would find the antechambers filled with gentiles and Jews \[...\] I would go to heal them, and write prescriptions for their illnesses \[...\] until the evening \[...\] and I would be extremely weak."[^38]
	64
	65	As he goes on to say in this letter, even on [[Shabbat]] he would receive members of the community. Still, he managed to write extended treatises, including not only medical and other scientific studies but some of the most systematically thought-through and influential treatises on [[Halakha\|halakha]] (rabbinic law) and Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages.[^39]
	66
	67	In 1172–74, Maimonides wrote his famous [[Epistle to Yemen]].[^40] It has been suggested that his "incessant travail" undermined his own health and brought about his death at 69 (although this is a normal lifespan).[^41]
	68
	69	### Death and burial place
	70
	71	Maimonides died on 12 December 1204 (20th of [[Tevet]] 4965) in Fustat. A variety of medieval sources beginning with [[Al-Qifti\|al-Qifti]] maintain that his body was interred near the [[Sea of Galilee]], though there is no contemporary evidence for his removal from Egypt. [[Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph]] records that "He was buried in the [[Upper Galilee]] with elegies upon his gravestone. In the time of [[David Kimhi\|Kimhi]], when the sons of [[Belial]] rose up to besmirch \[Maimonides\] . . . they did evil. They altered his gravestone, which previously had been inscribed 'choicest of the human race (מבחר המין האנושי)', so that instead it read 'the excommunicated heretic (מוחרם ומין)'. But later, after the provocateurs had repented of their act, and praised this great man, a student repaired the gravestone to read 'choicest of the Israelites (מבחר המין הישראלי)'".[^42] Today, Tiberias hosts the Tomb of Maimonides, on which is inscribed "From [[Moses]] to Moses arose none like Moses."[^43]
	72
	73	He is buried in [[Tomb of Maimonides]] in [[Tiberias]]. Other notable rabbis also buried in this complex are [[Isaiah Horowitz]], [[Eliezer ben Hurcanus]], [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]], and [[Joshua ben Hananiah]].
	74
	75	#### Ancestry and descendants
	76
	77	Maimonides is sometimes said to be [[House of David\|a descendant of David]], although he never made such a claim.[^44][^45]
	78
	79	[[Aaron ben Jacob ha-Kohen]] later wrote that he had traced Maimonides' descent back to [[Simeon ben Judah ha-Nasi]] from the [[Davidic line]].[^46] His ancestry, going back four generations, is given in his [[Epistle to Yemen]] as Moses ben Maimon ben Joseph ben Isaac ben Obadiah.[^47] At the end of his commentary on the [[Mishnah]], however, a longer, slightly different genealogy is given: Moses ben Maimon ben Joseph ben Isaac ben Joseph ben Obadiah ben Solomon ben Obadiah.[^10]
	80
	81	Maimonides and his wife, the daughter of Mishael ben Yeshayahu [[Levites\|Halevi]], had one child who survived into adulthood,[^48] [[Abraham Maimonides]], who became recognized as a great scholar, but his scholarship and career was overshadowed by his father's importance. He succeeded Maimonides as [[Nagid]] and as court [[Physician\|physician]] at the age of eighteen. Throughout his career, he defended his father's writings against all critics. The office of Nagid was held by the Maimonides family for four successive generations, until the end of the 14th century.
	82
	83	## Philosophical and theological commentary
	84
	85	Through [[The Guide for the Perplexed]], Mishneh Torah, and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishnah, Maimonides exerted an important influence on the [[Scholasticism\|Scholastic]] philosophers, especially on [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Duns Scotus]]. He was a Jewish Scholastic. Educated more by reading the works of Arab Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy, but with the doctrines of Aristotle. Maimonides strove to reconcile [[Aristotelianism]] and science with the teachings of the [[Torah]].[^49]
	86
	87	In his Guide for the Perplexed, he often explains the function and purpose of the statutory provisions contained in the Torah against the backdrop of the historical conditions. The book was [[Maimonidean Controversy\|highly controversial]] in its day, and was banned by French rabbis, who burnt copies of the work in [[Montpellier]].[^50]
	88
	89	### Thirteen principles of faith in Judaism
	90
	91	In his commentary on the Mishnah ([[Sanhedrin (tractate)\|Tractate Sanhedrin]], chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his "13 principles of faith"; and that these principles summarized what he viewed as the required beliefs of Judaism:
	92
	93	1. The [[Existence of God\|existence of God]].
	94	2. God's [[Divine simplicity\|unity]] and indivisibility into elements.
	95	3. God's [[Spirituality\|spirituality]] and [[Incorporeal\|incorporeality]].
	96	4. God's [[Eternity\|eternity]].
	97	5. [[God in Judaism\|God alone]] should be the object of [[Worship\|worship]].
	98	6. [[Revelation]] through God's [[Prophet\|prophets]].
	99	7. The preeminence of [[Moses]] among the prophets.
	100	8. That the entire Torah (both the Written and Oral law) are of Divine origin and were dictated to Moses by God on Mt. Sinai.
	101	9. The [[Torah]] given by Moses is permanent and will not be replaced or changed.
	102	10. God's awareness of all human actions and thoughts.
	103	11. Reward of righteousness and punishment of evil.
	104	12. The coming of [[Jewish Messiah\|the Messiah]].
	105	13. The [[Universal resurrection\|resurrection of the dead]].
	106
	107	Maimonides is said to have compiled the principles from various Talmudic sources. These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Rabbis [[Hasdai Crescas]] and [[Joseph Albo]], and were effectively ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries.[^51] However, these principles have become widely held and are considered to be the cardinal principles of faith for [[Orthodox Judaism\|Orthodox Jews]].[^52] Two poetic restatements of these principles ([[Ani Ma'amin]] and [[Yigdal]]) eventually became canonized in many editions of the [[Siddur]] (Jewish prayer book).[^53]
	108
	109	The omission of a list of these principles as such within his later works, the Mishneh Torah and [[The Guide for the Perplexed]], has led some to suggest that either he retracted his earlier position, or that these principles are descriptive rather than prescriptive.[^54][^55][^56][^57][^58]
	110
	111	### Nature of the God of Abraham
	112
	113	Maimonides equated the [[God in Judaism\|God of Abraham]] to what philosophers refer to as the [[Necessary being\|Necessary Being]]. God is unique in the universe, and the Torah commands that one [[Love of God\|love]] and [[Fear of God\|fear]] God ([[Book of Deuteronomy\|Deut]] 10:12) on account of that uniqueness. To Maimonides, this meant that one ought to contemplate God's works and to marvel at the order and wisdom that went into their creation. When one does this, one inevitably comes to love God and to sense how insignificant one is in comparison to God. This is the basis of the Torah.[^59]
	114
	115	The principle that inspired his philosophical activity was identical to a fundamental tenet of [[Scholasticism\|scholasticism]]: there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy. Maimonides primarily relied upon the science of Aristotle and the teachings of the Talmud, commonly claiming to find a basis for the latter in the former.[^60]
	116
	117	Maimonides' admiration for the [[Neoplatonism\|Neoplatonic commentators]] led him to doctrines which the later Scholastics did not accept. For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of [[Apophatic theology\|apophatic theology]]. In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative attributes. For example, one should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; it can be said that God is not non-existent. One should not say that "God is wise"; but it can be said that "God is not ignorant," i.e., in some way, God has some properties of knowledge. One should not say that "God is One," but it can be stated that "there is no multiplicity in God's being." In brief, the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of God by describing what God is not, rather than by describing what God "is."[^61]
	118
	119	Maimonides argued adamantly that God is not corporeal. This was central to his thinking about the sin of [[Idolatry\|idolatry]]. Maimonides insisted that all of the [[Anthropomorphic\|anthropomorphic]] phrases pertaining to God in sacred texts are to be interpreted [[Metaphor\|metaphorically]].[^61] A related tenet of Maimonidean theology is the notion that the [[613 commandments\|commandments]], especially those pertaining to [[Korban\|sacrifices]], are intended to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry.[^62]
	120
	121	Maimonides also argued that God embodied [[Reason\|reason]], [[Intellect\|intellect]], [[Science\|science]], and [[Nature\|nature]], and was [[Omnipotent\|omnipotent]] and indescribable.[^63] He said that science, the growth of scientific fields, and discovery of the unknown by comprehension of nature was a way to appreciate God.[^63]
	122
	123	### Morality in character development
	124
	125	Maimonides taught about the developing of one's [[Moral character\|moral character]]. Although his life predated the modern concept of a [[Personality\|personality]], Maimonides believed that each person has an innate disposition along an ethical and emotional spectrum. Although one's disposition is often determined by factors outside of one's control, human beings have [[Free will\|free will]] to choose to behave in ways that build character.[^64] He wrote, "One is obligated to conduct his affairs with others in a gentle and pleasing manner."[^65] Maimonides advised that those with antisocial character traits should identify those traits and then make a conscious effort to behave in the opposite way. For example, an arrogant person should practice humility.[^66] If the circumstances of one's environment are such that it is impossible to behave ethically, one must move to a new location.[^67]
	126
	127	#### The "prophetic" state
	128
	129	Maimonides agreed with "the Philosopher" (Aristotle) that the use of logic is the "right" way of thinking. He claimed that in order to understand how to know God, every human being must, by study, and meditation attain the degree of perfection required to reach the [[Prophet\|prophetic]] state. Despite his rationalistic approach, he does not explicitly reject the previous ideas (as portrayed, for example, by [[Judah Halevi\|Yehuda Halevi]] in his [[Kuzari]]) that in order to become a prophet, God must intervene. Maimonides teaches that prophecy is the highest purpose of the most learned and refined individuals.
	130
	131	### Problem of evil in spite of God's presence
	132
	133	Maimonides wrote on [[Theodicy\|theodicy]] (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the existence of evil). He took the premise that an omnipotent and good God exists.[^68][^69][^70][^71] In The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides writes that all the evil that exists within human beings stems from their individual attributes, while all good comes from a universally shared humanity (Guide 3:8). He says that there are people who are guided by higher purpose, and there are those who are guided by physicality and must strive to find the higher purpose with which to guide their actions.
	134
	135	To justify the existence of evil, assuming God is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent, Maimonides postulates that one who created something by causing its opposite not to exist is not the same as creating something that exists; so evil is merely the absence of good. God did not create evil, rather God created good, and evil exists where good is absent (Guide 3:10). Therefore, all good is divine invention, and evil both is not and comes secondarily.
	136
	137	Maimonides contests the common view that evil outweighs good in the world. He says that if one were to examine existence only in terms of humanity, then that person may observe evil to dominate good, but if one looks at the whole of the universe, then he sees good is significantly more common than evil (Guide 3:12). Man, he reasons, is too insignificant a figure in God's myriad works to be their primary characterizing force, and so when people see mostly evil in their lives, they are not taking into account the extent of positive Creation outside of themselves.
	138
	139	Maimonides believes that there are three types of evil in the world: evil caused by nature, evil that people bring upon others, and evil man brings upon himself (Guide 3:12). The first type of evil Maimonides states is the rarest form, but arguably of the most necessary—the balance of life and death in both the human and animal worlds itself, he recognizes, is essential to God's plan. Maimonides writes that the second type of evil is relatively rare, and that humanity brings it upon itself. The third type of evil humans bring upon themselves and is the source of most of the ills of the world. These are the result of people's falling victim to their physical desires. To prevent the majority of evil which stems from harm one does to oneself, one must learn how to respond to one's bodily urges.
	140
	141	### Skepticism of astrology
	142
	143	Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from [[Marseille]].[^72] He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy authority. He affirms that he had studied astrology, and that it does not deserve to be described as a science. He ridicules the concept that the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations; he argues that such a theory would rob life of purpose, and would make man a slave of destiny.[^73]
	144
	145	Unlike some of his contemporaries, Maimonides did not believe that Greek knowledge had originated with the Jews originally, but he does believe that the sages and [[Solomon]] knew science and philosophy, however he does not believe those books have survived down to his time. He notes that rabbinical knowledge of mathematics was imperfect because it was learned from contemporary men of science, and not divinely inspired prophecy.[^74]
	146
	147	### True beliefs versus necessary beliefs
	148
	149	In The Guide for the Perplexed Book III, Chapter 28,[^75] Maimonides draws a distinction between "true beliefs," which were beliefs about God that produced intellectual perfection, and "necessary beliefs," which were conducive to improving social order. Maimonides places anthropomorphic personification statements about God in the latter class. He uses as an example the notion that God becomes "angry" with people who do wrong. In the view of Maimonides (taken from [[Avicenna]]), God does not become angry with people, as God has no human passions; but it is important for them to believe God does, so that they desist from doing wrong.
	150
	151	### Hierarchy of righteousness (tzedakah)
	152
	153	Maimonides conceived of an eight-level hierarchy of [[Tzedakah\|tzedakah]], where the highest form is to give a gift, loan, or partnership that will result in the recipient becoming self-sufficient instead of living upon others. In his view, the lowest form of tzedakah is to give begrudgingly.[^76] The eight levels are:[^77]
	154
	155	1. Giving begrudgingly
	156	2. Giving less than you should, but giving it cheerfully
	157	3. Giving as much as you should after being asked
	158	4. Giving the correct amount before being asked
	159	5. Giving when you do not know the recipient's identity, but the recipient knows your identity
	160	6. Giving when you know the recipient's identity, but the recipient doesn't know your identity
	161	7. Giving when neither party knows the other's identity
	162	8. Enabling the recipient to become self-reliant
	163
	164	### Biblical eschatology and events
	165
	166	#### The Messianic era
	167
	168	Perhaps one of Maimonides' most highly acclaimed and renowned writings is his treatise on the Messianic era, written originally in [[Judeo-Arabic]] and which he elaborates on in great detail in his Commentary on the [[Mishnah]] (Introduction to the 10th chapter of [[Sanhedrin (tractate)\|tractate Sanhedrin]], also known as Pereḳ Ḥeleḳ).
	169
	170	##### Resurrection of the Dead
	171
	172	Religious Jews believed in immortality in a spiritual sense, and most believed that the future would include a messianic era and a resurrection of the dead. This is the subject of [[Jewish eschatology]]. Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his writings were usually not about the resurrection of dead bodies. Rabbis of his day were critical of this aspect of this thought, and there was controversy over his true views.[^78]
	173
	174	Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject, known as "The Treatise on Resurrection." In it, he wrote that those who claimed that he believed the verses of the [[Hebrew Bible]] referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods. Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement.[^79]
	175
	176	While his position on the [[World to come\|World to Come]] (non-corporeal eternal life as described above) may be seen as being in contradiction with his position on bodily resurrection, Maimonides resolved them with a then unique solution: Maimonides believed that the resurrection was not permanent or general. In his view, God never violates the laws of nature. Rather, divine interaction is by way of [[Angel\|angels]], whom Maimonides often regards to be metaphors for the laws of nature, the principles by which the physical universe operates, or Platonic eternal forms.[^80] Thus, if a unique event actually occurs, even if it is perceived as a miracle, it is not a violation of the world's order.[^81]
	177
	178	In this view, any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again. In his discussion of the [[13 principles of faith]], the first five deal with knowledge of God, the next four deal with prophecy and the Torah, while the last four deal with reward, punishment and the ultimate redemption. In this discussion Maimonides says nothing of a universal resurrection. All he says it is that whatever resurrection does take place, it will occur at an indeterminate time before the world to come, which he repeatedly states will be purely spiritual.
	179
	180	##### The World to Come
	181
	182	Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily organism. The latter is a direct emanation from the universal [[Active intellect\|active intellect]]; this is his interpretation of the noûs poietikós of Aristotelian philosophy. It is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure intelligence of God.
	183
	184	The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge which develops in us the immaterial intelligence, and thus confers on man an immaterial, spiritual nature. This confers on the soul that perfection in which human happiness consists, and endows the soul with [[Immortality\|immortality]]. One who has attained a correct knowledge of God has reached a condition of existence, which renders him immune from all the accidents of fortune, from all the allurements of sin, and from death itself. Man is in a position to work out his own salvation and his immortality.
	185
	186	[[Baruch Spinoza]]'s doctrine of immortality was strikingly similar. However, Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense-knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things sub specie æternitatis, while Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the [[Torah]] and the rabbinic understanding of the [[Oral law\|oral law]].
	187
	188	Maimonides describes the world to come as the stage after a person lives their life in this world as well as the final state of existence after the Messianic Era. Some time after the resurrection of the dead, souls will live forever without bodies. They will enjoy the radiance of the Divine Presence without the need for food, drink or sexual pleasures.[^82]
	189
	190	### Views on contemporary Kabbalah
	191
	192	Maimonides was not known as a supporter of [[Kabbalah]], although a strong intellectual type of mysticism has been discerned in his philosophy.[^83] In The Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides declares his intention to conceal from the average reader his explanations of Sod[^84] esoteric meanings of Torah. The nature of these "secrets" is debated. Religious Jewish rationalists, and the mainstream academic view, read Maimonides' Aristotelianism as a mutually-exclusive alternative metaphysics to [[Kabbalah]].[^85] Some academics hold that Maimonides' project fought against the Proto-Kabbalah of his time.[^86]
	193
	194	Maimonides employed rationalism to defend Judaism rather than limit inquiry of Sod only to rationalism. His rationalism, if not taken as an opposition,[^87] also assisted the Kabbalists, purifying their transmitted teaching from mistaken [[Anthropomorphism in Kabbalah\|corporeal]] interpretations that could have been made from [[Hekhalot literature]],[^88] though Kabbalists held that their theosophy alone allowed human access to Divine mysteries.[^89]
	195
	196	## Published works
	197
	198	Maimonides, who was revered for his personality as well as for his writings,[^90][^91] led a busy life, and wrote many of his works while travelling or in temporary accommodation.[^16] Most of his work was originally compiled in [[Arabic]], though he also wrote some of his religious tracts in [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]], with many of the earliest translations by other scholars existing primarily in [[Greek language\|Greek]] and [[Latin]].
	199
	200	### On Judaism
	201
	202	#### Mishneh Torah
	203
	204	With Mishneh Torah, Maimonides composed a comprehensive code of [[Jewish law]]. The work gathers all the binding laws from the [[Talmud]], and incorporates the positions of the [[Geonim]] (post-Talmudic early medieval scholars, mainly from [[Mesopotamia]]). It is also known as Yad ha-Chazaka or simply Yad (יד) which has the numerical value 14, representing the 14 books of the work. The Mishneh Torah made following Jewish law easier for the Jews of his time, who were struggling to understand the complex nature of Jewish rules and regulations as they had adapted over the years.
	205
	206	Later codes of halakha such as the [[Arba'ah Turim]] of [[Jacob ben Asher]] and [[Shulchan Aruch]] of [[Joseph Karo]] draw heavily on Mishneh Torah; both often quote whole sections verbatim. However, it met initially with much opposition.[^92] There were two main reasons for this opposition. First, Maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity; second, in the introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to "cut out" study of the Talmud,[^93] to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law, although Maimonides later wrote that this was not his intent. His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of [[Provence]] (Southern France), and a running critique by [[Abraham ben David]] (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of Mishneh Torah. Nevertheless, Mishneh Torah was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of [[Halakha\|halakha]]. Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings.
	207
	208	In response to those who would attempt to force followers of Maimonides and his Mishneh Torah to abide by the rulings of his own [[Shulchan Aruch]] or other later works, Joseph Karo wrote: "Who would dare force communities who follow the Rambam to follow any other [[Posek\|decisor]] \[of Jewish law\], early or late? \[...\] The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors, and all the communities of the [[Land of Israel]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula\|Arabistan]] and the [[Maghreb]] practice according to his word, and accepted him as their rabbi."[^94]
	209
	210	An oft-cited legal maxim from his pen is: "[[Blackstone's formulation\|It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death]]." He argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until defendants would be convicted merely according to the judge's caprice.[^95]
	211
	212	#### Rabbinic law and theology
	213
	214	Maimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, [[Halakhah\|rabbinic law]], philosophy, and medical texts. Most of Maimonides' works were written in [[Judeo-Arabic languages\|Judeo-Arabic]]. However, the Mishneh Torah was written in Hebrew. In addition to Mishneh Torah, his Jewish texts were:
	215
	216	- [[Mishnah\|Commentary on the Mishna]] (Arabic Kitab al-Siraj, translated into Hebrew as Pirush Hamishnayot), written in [[Classical Arabic]] using the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. This was the first full commentary ever written on the entire Mishnah, which took Maimonides seven years to complete. It is considered one of the most important Mishnah commentaries, having enjoyed great popularity both in its Arabic original and its medieval Hebrew translation. The commentary includes three philosophical introductions which were also highly influential:
	217	- The Introduction to the Mishnah deals with the nature of the oral law, the distinction between the prophet and the sage, and the organizational structure of the Mishnah.
	218	- The Introduction to Mishnah [[Sanhedrin (tractate)\|Sanhedrin]], chapter ten (Pereḳ Ḥeleḳ), is an eschatological essay that concludes with Maimonides' famous creed ("the thirteen principles of faith").
	219	- The Introduction to [[Pirkei Avot]], popularly called The Eight Chapters, is an ethical treatise.
	220	- [[Sefer Hamitzvot]] (The Book of Commandments). In this work, Maimonides lists all the [[613 commandments\|613 mitzvot]] traditionally contained in the Torah (Pentateuch). He describes fourteen shorashim (roots or principles) to guide his selection.
	221	- Sefer Ha'shamad (Letter of Martydom)
	222	- [[The Guide for the Perplexed]], a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating Aristotle's philosophy and Jewish theology. Written in Judeo-Arabic under the title Dalālat al-ḥāʾirīn, and completed between 1186 and 1190.[^96] It has been suggested that the title is derived from the Arabic phrase dalīl al-mutaḥayyirin (guide of the perplexed) a name for God in a work by [[Al-Ghazālī\|al-Ghazālī]], echoes of whose work can be found elsewhere in Maimonides.[^97] The first translation of this work into Hebrew was done by [[Samuel ibn Tibbon]] in 1204 just prior to Maimonides' death.[^49]
	223	- Teshuvot, collected correspondence and [[Responsa\|responsa]], including a number of public letters (on resurrection and the [[Afterlife\|afterlife]], on conversion to other faiths, and the [[Epistle to Yemen]] addressed to the oppressed [[Yemenite Jews]]).
	224	- Hilkhot ha-Yerushalmi, a fragment of a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud, identified and published by [[Saul Lieberman]] in 1947.
	225	- Commentaries to the [[Babylonian Talmud]], of which fragments survive.[^98]
	226
	227	### On medicine
	228
	229	Maimonides' achievements in the medical field are well known, and are cited by many medieval authors. One of his more important medical works is his Guide to Good Health (Regimen Sanitatis), which he composed in Arabic for the Sultan [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din\|al-Afdal]], son of [[Saladin]], who suffered from [[Depression (mood)\|depression]].[^99] The work was translated into Latin, and published in Florence in 1477, becoming the first medical book to appear in print there.[^100] While his prescriptions may have become obsolete, "his ideas about preventive medicine, public hygiene, approach to the suffering patient, and the preservation of the health of the soul have not become obsolete."[^101] Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in [[Arabic]] that have been translated by the [[Jewish medical ethics\|Jewish medical ethicist]] [[Fred Rosner]] into contemporary English.[^35][^102] Lectures, conferences and research on Maimonides, even recently in the 21st century, have been done at medical universities in [[Morocco]].
	230
	231	- Regimen Sanitatis, Suessmann Muntner (ed.), [[Mossad Harav Kook]]: Jerusalem 1963 (translated into Hebrew by [[Moses ibn Tibbon\|Moshe Ibn Tibbon]]) ([[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [729184001](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/729184001))
	232	- The Art of Cure – Extracts from Galen (Barzel, 1992, Vol. 5)[^103] is essentially an extract of [[Galen]]'s extensive writings.
	233	- Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates (Rosner, 1987, Vol. 2; Hebrew:[^104] פירוש לפרקי אבוקראט) is interspersed with his own views.
	234	- Medical Aphorisms[^105] of Moses (Rosner, 1989, Vol. 3) titled Fusul Musa in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] ("Chapters of Moses", Hebrew:[^106] פרקי משה) contains 1500 aphorisms and many medical conditions are described.
	235	- Treatise on Hemorrhoids (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1; Hebrew:[^107] ברפואת הטחורים) discusses also digestion and food.
	236	- Treatise on Cohabitation (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1) contains recipes as [[Aphrodisiac\|aphrodisiacs]] and anti-aphrodisiacs.
	237	- Treatise on Asthma (Rosner, 1994, Vol. 6)[^108] discusses climates and diets and their effect on asthma and emphasizes the need for clean air.
	238	- Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes (in Rosner, 1984, Vol. 1) is an early [[Toxicology\|toxicology]] textbook that remained popular for centuries.
	239	- Regimen of Health (in Rosner, 1990, Vol. 4; Hebrew:[^109] הנהגת הבריאות) is a discourse on healthy living and the mind-body connection.
	240	- Discourse on the Explanation of Fits advocates healthy living and the avoidance of overabundance.
	241	- Glossary of Drug Names (Rosner, 1992, Vol. 7)[^110] represents a [[Pharmacopeia\|pharmacopeia]] with 405 paragraphs with the names of drugs in Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish.
	242
	243	#### Oath of Maimonides
	244
	245	The [[Oath of Maimonides]] is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the [[Hippocratic Oath]]. It is not to be confused with a more lengthy Prayer of Maimonides. These documents may not have been written by Maimonides, but later.[^34] The Oath appeared first in print in 1793 and has been attributed to [[Markus Herz]], a German physician, pupil of [[Immanuel Kant]].[^111]
	246
	247	### On philosophy
	248
	249	#### Treatise on Logic
	250
	251	The Treatise on Logic (Arabic: Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq) has been printed 17 times, including editions in [[Latin]] (1527), [[German language\|German]] (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), [[French language\|French]] (1936) by Moïse Ventura and in 1996 by Rémi Brague, and English (1938) by Israel Efros, and in an abridged Hebrew form. The work illustrates the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in the teachings of the great [[List of Muslim philosophers\|Islamic philosophers]] such as [[Avicenna]] and, above all, [[Al-Farabi]], "the Second Master," the "First Master" being [[Aristotle]]. In his work devoted to the Treatise, [[Rémi Brague]] stresses the fact that Al-Farabi is the only philosopher mentioned therein. This indicates a line of conduct for the reader, who must read the text keeping in mind Al-Farabi's works on logic. In the Hebrew versions, the Treatise is called The words of Logic which describes the bulk of the work. The author explains the technical meaning of the words used by logicians. The Treatise duly inventories the terms used by the logician and indicates what they refer to. The work proceeds rationally through a lexicon of philosophical terms to a summary of higher philosophical topics, in 14 chapters corresponding to Maimonides' birthdate of 14 Nissan. The number 14 recurs in many of Maimonides' works. Each chapter offers a cluster of associated notions. The meaning of the words is explained and illustrated with examples. At the end of each chapter, the author carefully draws up the list of words studied.
	252
	253	Until very recently, it was accepted that Maimonides wrote the Treatise on Logic in his twenties or even in his teen years.[^112] Herbert Davidson has raised questions about Maimonides' authorship of this short work (and of other short works traditionally attributed to Maimonides). He maintains that Maimonides was not the author at all, based on a report of two Arabic-language manuscripts, unavailable to Western investigators in Asia Minor.[^113] [[Yosef Qafih]] maintained that it is by Maimonides and newly translated it to Hebrew (as Beiur M'lekhet HaHiggayon) from the Judeo-Arabic.[^114]
	254
	255	## Legacy
	256
	257	### Influence on Jewish scholarship
	258
	259	Maimonides' Mishneh Torah is considered by Jews even today as one of the chief authoritative codifications of Jewish law and ethics. It is exceptional for its logical construction, concise and clear expression and extraordinary learning, so that it became a standard against which other later codifications were often measured.[^115] It is still closely studied in rabbinic yeshivot (seminaries). The first to compile a comprehensive lexicon containing an alphabetically arranged list of difficult words found in Maimonides' Mishneh Torah was [[Tanhum ha-Yerushalmi\|Tanḥum ha-Yerushalmi]] (1220–1291).[^116] A popular medieval saying that also served as his [[Epitaph\|epitaph]] states, "From [[Moses\|Mosheh]] \[of the Torah\] to Mosheh \[Maimonides\] there was none like Mosheh." It chiefly referred to his rabbinic writings.
	260
	261	However, Maimonides was also one of the most influential figures in medieval Jewish philosophy. His adaptation of [[Aristotelianism\|Aristotelian thought]] to Biblical faith deeply impressed later Jewish thinkers, and had an unexpected immediate historical impact.[^117] Some more acculturated Jews in the century that followed his death, particularly in Spain, sought to apply Maimonides' Aristotelianism in ways that undercut traditionalist belief and observance, giving rise to an [[Maimonidean Controversy\|intellectual controversy]] in Spanish and southern French Jewish circles.[^118] The intensity of debate spurred Catholic Church interventions against "heresy" and a general confiscation of rabbinic texts.
	262
	263	In reaction, the more radical interpretations of Maimonides were defeated. At least amongst Ashkenazi Jews, there was a tendency to ignore his specifically philosophical writings and to stress instead the rabbinic and halakhic writings. These writings often included considerable philosophical chapters or discussions in support of halakhic observance; [[David Hartman (rabbi)\|David Hartman]] observes that Maimonides clearly expressed "the traditional support for a philosophical understanding of God both in the Aggadah of Talmud and in the behavior of the hasid \[the pious Jew\]."[^119] Maimonidean thought continues to influence traditionally observant Jews.[^120][^121]
	264
	265	The most rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides is [[Hasdai Crescas]]' [[Or Adonai]]. Crescas bucked the eclectic trend, by demolishing the certainty of the Aristotelian world-view, not only in religious matters but also in the most basic areas of medieval science (such as physics and geometry). Crescas' critique provoked a number of 15th-century scholars to write defenses of Maimonides.
	266
	267	Because of his path-finding synthesis of Aristotle and Biblical faith, Maimonides had an influence on Christian theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] who refers to Maimonides in several of his works, including the [[Commentary on the Sentences]].[^122]
	268
	269	Maimonides' combined abilities in the fields of theology, philosophy and medicine make his work attractive today as a source during discussions of evolving norms in these fields, particularly medicine. An example is the modern citation of his method of determining death of the body in the controversy regarding declaration of death to permit [[Organ donation\|organ donation]] for [[Organ transplantation\|transplantation]].[^123]
	270
	271	Maimonides remains one of the most widely debated Jewish thinkers among modern scholars. He has been adopted as a symbol and an intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern Judaism, and has proven important to philosophers such as [[Leo Strauss]]; and his views on the importance of [[Humility\|humility]] have been taken up by modern [[Humanism\|humanist]] philosophers. In academia, particularly within the area of Jewish Studies, the teaching of Maimonides has been dominated by traditional scholars, generally Orthodox, who place a very strong emphasis on Maimonides as a rationalist; one result is that certain sides of Maimonides' thought, including his opposition to [[Anthropocentrism\|anthropocentrism]], have been obviated. There are movements in some postmodern circles to claim Maimonides for other purposes, as within the discourse of [[Ecotheology\|ecotheology]].[^124] Maimonides' reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality.
	272
	273	### Tributes and memorials
	274
	275	A [statue of Maimonides](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatua%20de%20Maimónides%20(Cordoba)) was erected near the [[Córdoba Synagogue]].
	276
	277	Maimonides has been memorialized in numerous ways. For example, one of the Learning Communities at the [[Tufts University School of Medicine]] bears his name. There is also [[Maimonides School]] in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]], [[Maimonides Academy School]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], [[Lycée Maïmonide]] in Casablanca, the Brauser Maimonides Academy in [[Hollywood, Florida]],[^125] and [[Maimonides Medical Center]] in [[Brooklyn]], New York. [[Beit Harambam Congregation]], a Sephardi synagogue in [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, is named after him.[^126]
	278
	279	Issued from 8 May 1986 to 1995,[^127] the Series A of the [[Israeli New Shekel]] featured an illustration of Maimonides on the obverse and the place of his burial in [[Tiberias]] on the reverse on its 1-shekel bill.[^128]
	280
	281	Maimonides is one of the heroes of the novel Century 21, Normal IL, [[Dalkey Archive Press]], 1992 by [[Ewa Kuryluk]].
	282
	283	In 2004, conferences were held at [[Yale University]], [[Florida International University]], [[Pennsylvania State University\|Penn State]], and [[Rambam Health Care Campus\|Rambam Hospital]] in [[Haifa]], Israel, which is named after him. To commemorate the 800th anniversary of his death, [[Harvard University]] issued a memorial volume.[^129] In 1953, the Israel Postal Authority issued a [[Postage stamp\|postage stamp]] of Maimonides, pictured.
	284
	285	In March 2008, during the [[Euro-Mediterranean Partnership\|Euromed]] Conference of Ministers of Tourism, The Tourism Ministries of Israel, Morocco and Spain agreed to work together on a joint project that will trace the footsteps of the Rambam and thus boost religious tourism in the cities of Córdoba, Fez and [[Tiberias]].[^130]
	286
	287	Between December 2018 and January 2019 the [[Israel Museum]] held a special exhibit dedicated to the writings of Maimonides.[^131]
	288
	289	## Bibliography
	290
	291	- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the [[Public domain\|public domain]]: [[Joseph Jacobs]], [[Isaac Broydé]] (1901–1906). ["Moses Ben Maimon"](http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=M). In [[Isidore Singer\|Singer I]], et al. (eds.). [[The Jewish Encyclopedia]]. The Executive Committee of the Editorial Board, and [[Jacob Zallel Lauterbach]]. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
	292	- Barzel U (1992). [Maimonides' Medical Writings: The Art of Cure Extracts](https://books.google.com/books?id=PPraAAAAMAAJ). Vol. 5\. Galen: Maimonides Research Institute. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160617152544/https://books.google.com/books?id=PPraAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
	293	- Bos G (2002). Maimonides. On Asthma (vol.1, vol.2). Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press.
	294	- Bos G (2007). Maimonides. Medical Aphorisms Treatise 1–5 (6–9, 10–15, 16–21, 22–25). Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press.
	295	- Davidson HA (2005). Moses Maimonides: The Man and his Works. Oxford University Press.
	296	- Feldman Y (2008). Shemonah Perakim: The Eight Chapters of the Rambam. Targum Press.
	297	- Fox M (1990). Interpreting Maimonides. Univ. of Chicago Press.
	298	- [[Julius Guttman\|Guttman J]] (1964). David Silverman (ed.). Philosophies of Judaism. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
	299	- [[Moshe Halbertal\|Halbertal M]] (2013). [Maimonides: Life and Thought](http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10093.html). Princeton University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-691-15851-8. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150905085947/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10093.html) from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
	300	- Hart Green K (2013). Leo Strauss on Maimonides: The Complete Writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
	301	- [[David Hartman (rabbi)\|Hartman D]] (1976). [Maimonides: Torah and Philosophic Quest](https://archive.org/details/maimonidestorahp00hart). Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-8276-0083-6.
	302	- [[Abraham Joshua Heschel\|Heschel AJ]] (1982). Maimonides: The Life and Times of a Medieval Jewish Thinker. New York: Farrar Straus.
	303	- [[Isaac Husik\|Husik I]] (2002) \[1941\]. A History of Jewish Philosophy. Dover Publications, Inc. Originally published by the Jewish Publication of America, Philadelphia.
	304	- [[Aryeh Kaplan\|Kaplan A]] (1994). "Maimonides Principles: The Fundamentals of Jewish Faith". The Aryeh Kaplan Anthology. I.
	305	- Kellner M (1986). [Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought](https://archive.org/details/dogmainmedievalj0000kell). London: Oxford University press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-19-710044-8.
	306	- Kohler GY (2012). "Reading Maimonides' Philosophy in 19th Century Germany". Amsterdam Studies in Jewish Philosophy. 15.
	307	- Kraemer JL (28 October 2008). [Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds](https://books.google.com/books?id=aFgCIvDv-JEC). Random House Publishing Group. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-385-52851-1.
	308	- Leaman DH, Leaman F, Leaman O (2003). History of Jewish Philosophy (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. See especially chapters 10 through 15.
	309	- [[Maimonides]] (1963). Suessmann Muntner (ed.). Moshe Ben Maimon (Maimonides) Medical Works (in Hebrew). Translated by Moshe Ibn Tibbon. Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook. [[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [729184001](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/729184001).
	310	- [[Maimonides]] (1967). [[Mishnah]], with Maimonides' Commentary (in Hebrew). Vol. 3\. Translated by [[Yosef Qafih]]. Jerusalem: [[Mossad Harav Kook]]. [[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [741081810](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/741081810).
	311	- [[Fred Rosner\|Rosner F]] (1984–1994). Maimonides' Medical Writings. Vol. 7 Vols. Maimonides Research Institute. (Volume 5 translated by Uriel Barzel; foreword by Fred Rosner.)
	312	- Seidenberg D (2005). ["Maimonides – His Thought Related to Ecology"](https://neohasid.org/torah/rambam/). The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131208213823/http://www.neohasid.org/torah/rambam/) from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
	313	- Shapiro MB (1993). "Maimonides Thirteen Principles: The Last Word in Jewish Theology?". The Torah U-Maddah Journal. 4.
	314	- Shapiro MB (2008). Studies in Maimonides and His Interpreters. Scranton (PA): University of Scranton Press.
	315	- [[Colette Sirat\|Sirat C]] (1985). A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. See chapters 5 through 8.
	316	- [[Leo Strauss\|Strauss L]] (1974). Shlomo Pines (ed.). How to Begin to Study the Guide: The Guide of the Perplexed – Maimonides (in Arabic). Vol. 1\. University of Chicago Press.
	317	- [[Leo Strauss\|Strauss L]] (1988). [Persecution and the Art of Writing](https://archive.org/details/persecutionartof0000stra). University of Chicago Press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-226-77711-5. reprint
	318	- Stroumsa S (2009). [Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker](https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=26207). Princeton University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-691-13763-6. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160603055156/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=26207) from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
	319	- [[Joseph Telushkin\|Telushkin J]] (2006). A Code of Jewish Ethics. Vol. 1 (You Shall Be Holy). New York: Bell Tower. [[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [460444264](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/460444264).
	320	- [[Isadore Twersky\|Twersky I]] (1972). I Twersky (ed.). A Maimonides Reader. New York: Behrman House.
	321	- [[Isadore Twersky\|Twersky I]] (1980). "Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah)". Yale Judaica Series. XII. New Haven and London.
	322
	323	## Further reading
	324
	325	- Maimonides: Abū ʿImrān Mūsā \[Moses\] ibn ʿUbayd Allāh \[Maymūn\] al‐Qurṭubī [www.islamsci.mcgill.ca](https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Maimonides_BEA.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110827111712/http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Maimonides_BEA.htm) 27 August 2011 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
	326	- ["History of Medicine"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130524172551/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/historyofmedicine/hetenyi/levinoff.htm). AIME. Archived from [the original](https://med.uottawa.ca/department-innovation/medicine-humanities/history-medicine) on 24 May 2013.
	327	- S. R. Simon (1999). "Moses Maimonides: medieval physician and scholar". Arch Intern Med. 159 (16): 1841–5\. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1001/archinte.159.16.1841](https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinte.159.16.1841). [[PMID (identifier)\|PMID]] [10493314](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10493314).
	328	- Athar Yawar (2008). ["Maimonides's medicine"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2808%2960365-7). The Lancet. 371 (9615): 804. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60365-7](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2808%2960365-7). [[S2CID (identifier)\|S2CID]] [54415482](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54415482).
	329	- ["Moses Maimonides \| biography – Jewish philosopher, scholar, and physician"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358539/Moses-Maimonides). Encyclopedia Britannica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150430003629/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358539/Moses-Maimonides) from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
	330	- [[Dov Schwartz]], [The Many Faces of Maimonides](https://dokumen.pub/the-many-faces-of-maimonides-9781618117816.html#English), Boston: Academic Studies Press 2018. Translated by Batya Stein. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1618119063
	331
	332	## Notes
	333
	334	[^1]: [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]]: מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־מַיְמוֹן Mōše ben Maymōn; [[Arabic language\|Arabic]]: موسى بن ميمون Mūsā ibn Maymūn
	335	[^2]: /maɪˈmɒnɪdiːz/ my-MON\-ih-deez ([[Greek language\|Greek]]: Μωυσής Μαϊμωνίδης Mōusḗs Maïmōnídēs; [[Latin language\|Latin]]: Moses Maimonides)
	336	[^3]: /ˌrɑːmˈbɑːm/; [[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]]: רמב״ם (from *Rabbēnū Mōše ben Maymōn*, lit. 'Our [[Rabbi]] Moses, son of [[Maimon ben Joseph\|Maimon]]')
	337	[^4]: 30 March or 6 April 1135, or 28 March or 4 April 1138
	338	[^5]: The date of 1138 of the [[Common Era]] is the date of birth given by Maimonides himself, in the very last chapter and comment made by Maimonides in his Commentary of the Mishnah,[[Maimonides\|5]] and where he writes: "I began to write this composition when I was twenty-three years old, and I completed it in [[Egypt]] while I was aged thirty, which year is the 1,479th year of the [[Seleucid era]] (1168 [[Common Era\|CE]])."
	339	[^6]: Joel E. Kramer, "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait", p. 47 note 1. In [[Kenneth Seeskin]], ed. (September 2005). The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-521-52578-7.
	340	[^7]: 1138 in Stroumsa, Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, [[Princeton University Press]], 2009, p. 8
	341	[^8]: Sherwin B. Nuland (2008), Maimonides, [[Random House]], p. 38
	342	[^9]: Marder M (11 November 2014). [The Philosopher's Plant: An Intellectual Herbarium](https://books.google.com/books?id=BsPQBAAAQBAJ). New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. p. 97\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-231-53813-8. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210717215651/https://books.google.com/books?id=BsPQBAAAQBAJ) from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
	343	[^10]: He usually left off "the Spaniard" and he sometimes added זצ״ל, [[Hebrew abbreviation\|short]] for "\[let\] mention of the righteous one bring a blessing." At the end of his commentary to the [[Mishna]], he gives a fuller lineage: אני משה ברבי מימון הדיין ברבי יוסף החכם ברבי יצחק הדיין ברבי יוסף הדיין ברבי עובדיהו הדיין ברבי שלמה הרב ברבי עובדיהו הדיין זכר קדושים לברכה, "I am Moshe son of Rabbi Maimon the Judge, son of Rabbi Joseph the Wise, son of Rabbi Isaac the Judge, son of Rabbi Joseph the Judge, son of Rabbi Obadiah the Judge, son of Rabbi Solomon the Teacher, son of Rabbi Obadiah the Judge; \[let\] mention of the holy ones bring a blessing."
	344	[^11]: Medieval Jews named Moses received the Arabic nickname abu Imran, in which the word abu has been inverted from its original sense of "father" to reference the biblical Moses' father Amram. Similarly, Jews named Isaac were known as abu Ibrahim, meaning: "son of Abraham". For more on the Jewish system of biblical nicknames, see [[Kunya (Arabic)\|Kunya]].
	345	[^12]: Ubaydallah is to be treated as Maimonides' surname; his grandfather was named Joseph. It is not always included in either Arabic or Hebrew versions of Maimonides' name. Various Hebrew manuscripts render ben Ovadyahu and ben Eved-Elohim ("descended/son of Obadiah"), but also Eved-Elohim, implying only "Moses son of Maimon, the servant of God" (cf. Josh. 1:13–15) and Latin versions follow, rendering servus dei. See: Bar-Sela A, Hoff HE, Faris E, Maimonides M (1964). "Moses Maimonides' Two Treatises on the Regimen of Health: Fi Tadbir al-Sihhah and Maqalah fi Bayan Ba'd al-A'rad wa-al-Jawab 'anha". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 54 (4). JSTOR: 3. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.2307/1005935](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1005935). [[ISSN (identifier)\|ISSN]] [0065-9746](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0065-9746). [[JSTOR (identifier)\|JSTOR]] [1005935](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005935).
	346	[^13]: [[Maimonides\|Kraemer 2008]], p. 12.
	347	[^14]: Targarona J, "Maimon ben Joseph ha-Dayyan", [Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World Online](https://referenceworks.brill.com/doi/10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_COM_0014310), [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1163/1878-9781\_ejiw\_COM\_0014310](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1878-9781_ejiw_COM_0014310), retrieved 18 January 2026
	348	[^15]: Stroumsa, Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, [[Princeton University Press]], 2009, p.65
	349	[^16]: 1954 Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 18, p. 140.
	350	[^17]: Y. K. Stillman, ed. (1984). "Libās". [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]. Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p. 744\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-90-04-09419-2.
	351	[^18]: See for example: [Solomon Zeitlin, "MAIMONIDES", The American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 37, pp 65 – 66.](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23601542) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211225011719/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23601542) 25 December 2021 at the [[Wayback Machine]]
	352	[^19]: [[Seder HaDoroth]] (year 4927) quotes Maimonides as saying that he began writing his commentary on the Mishna when he was 23 years old, and published it when he was 30. Because of the dispute about the date of Maimonides' birth, it is not clear which year the work was published.
	353	[^20]: Boehm BD, Holcomb M, eds. (2016). [Jerusalem, 1000–1400: Every People Under Heaven](https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications/jerusalem-1000-1400-every-people-under-heaven). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 82\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-58839-598-6.
	354	[^21]: ["Moses Maimonides \| Biography \| Research Starters \| EBSCO Research"](https://www.ebsco.com/). EBSCO. Retrieved 3 May 2026.
	355	[^22]: Loewenberg M (October–November 2012). ["No Jew had been permitted to enter the holy city which has become a Christian bastion since the Crusaders conquered it in 1096"](http://www.jewishmag.com/169mag/rambam_temple_mount/rambam_temple_mount.htm). Jewish Magazine. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181103105017/http://www.jewishmag.com/169mag/rambam_temple_mount/rambam_temple_mount.htm) from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
	356	[^23]: Boehm BD, Holcomb M, eds. (2016). [Jerusalem, 1000–1400: Every People Under Heaven](https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications/jerusalem-1000-1400-every-people-under-heaven). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-58839-598-6.
	357	[^24]: Davidson, p. 28.
	358	[^25]: Davidson HA (2005). [Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works](https://books.google.com/books?id=Qnw8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32). Oxford University Press, USA. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-19-517321-5.
	359	[^26]: Kraemer JL (1 January 1991). [Perspectives on Maimonides: Philosophical and Historical Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=nG1vEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA305). Liverpool University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-909821-43-9.
	360	[^27]: [[S.D. Goitein\|Goitein, S.D.]] Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, Princeton University Press, 1973 ([[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 0-691-05212-3), p. 208
	361	[^28]: Cohen, Mark R. Poverty and Charity in the Jewish Community of Medieval Egypt. Princeton University Press, 2005 ([[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 0-691-09272-9), pp. 115–116
	362	[^29]: The "India Trade" (a term devised by the Arabist S.D. Goitein) was a highly lucrative business venture in which Jewish merchants from Egypt, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East imported and exported goods ranging from pepper to brass from various ports along the [[Malabar Coast]] between the 11th–13th centuries. For more info, see the "India Traders" chapter in Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, 1973 or Goitein, India Traders of the Middle Ages, 2008.
	363	[^30]: Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, p. 207
	364	[^31]: Cohen, Poverty and Charity in the Jewish Community of Medieval Egypt, p. 115
	365	[^32]: Baron SW (1952). [A Social and Religious History of the Jews: High Middle Ages, 500–1200](https://books.google.com/books?id=0E_jEhTQpGkC&q=Megillat+Zutta&pg=PA215). Columbia University Press. p. 215\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-231-08843-5. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211225011741/https://books.google.com/books?id=0E_jEhTQpGkC&q=Megillat+Zutta&pg=PA215) from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
	366	[^33]: Rustow M (1 October 2010). ["Sar Shalom ben Moses ha-Levi"](https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/sar-shalom-ben-moses-ha-levi-SIM_0019250). Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200618184702/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/sar-shalom-ben-moses-ha-levi-SIM_0019250) from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
	367	[^34]: Julia Bess Frank (1981). ["Moses Maimonides: rabbi or medicine"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2595894). The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 54 (1): 79–88\. [[PMC (identifier)\|PMC]] [2595894](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2595894). [[PMID (identifier)\|PMID]] [7018097](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7018097).
	368	[^35]: [[Fred Rosner]] (2002). ["The Life of Moses Maimonides, a Prominent Medieval Physician"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090305065423/http://www.aecom.yu.edu/uploadedFiles/EJBM/19Rosner125.pdf) (PDF). Einstein Quart J Biol Med. 19 (3): 125–128\. Archived from [the original](http://www.aecom.yu.edu/uploadedFiles/EJBM/19Rosner125.pdf) (PDF) on 5 March 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
	369	[^36]: Gesundheit B, Or R, Gamliel C, Rosner F, Steinberg A (April 2008). ["Treatment of depression by Maimonides (1138–1204): Rabbi, Physician, and Philosopher"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090305065423/http://www.jewishmedicalethics.org/data/treatment%20of%20depression%20by%20maimonides%20rabbi%20physician%20and%20philosopher.pdf) (PDF). [[American Journal of Psychiatry]]. 165 (4): 425–428\. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101575](https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.2007.07101575). [[PMID (identifier)\|PMID]] [18381913](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18381913). Archived from [the original](http://www.jewishmedicalethics.org/data/treatment%20of%20depression%20by%20maimonides%20rabbi%20physician%20and%20philosopher.pdf) (PDF) on 5 March 2009.
	370	[^37]: Abraham Heschel, Maimonides (New York: Farrar Straus, 1982), Chapter 15, "Meditation on God," pp. 157–162, and also pp. 178–180, 184–185, 204, etc. Isadore Twersky, editor, A Maimonides Reader (New York: Behrman House, 1972), commences his "Introduction" with the following remarks, p. 1: "Maimonides' biography immediately suggests a profound paradox. A philosopher by temperament and ideology, a zealous devotee of the contemplative life who eloquently portrayed and yearned for the serenity of solitude and the spiritual exuberance of meditation, he nevertheless led a relentlessly active life that regularly brought him to the brink of exhaustion."
	371	[^38]: Responsa Pe'er HaDor, 143.
	372	[^39]: Such views of his works are found in almost all scholarly studies of the man and his significance. See, for example, the "Introduction" sub-chapter by Howard Kreisel to his overview article "Moses Maimonides", in History of Jewish Philosophy, edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, Second Edition (New York and London: [[Routledge]], 2003), pp. 245–246.
	373	[^40]: [Click to see full English translation of Maimonides' "Epistle to Yemen"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Epistle%20to%20Yemen)
	374	[^41]: The comment on the effect of his "incessant travail" on his health is by Salo Baron, "Moses Maimonides", in Great Jewish Personalities in Ancient and Medieval Time, edited by Simon Noveck (B'nai B'rith Department of Adult Jewish Education, 1959), p. 227, where Baron also quotes from Maimonides' letter to Ibn Tibbon regarding his daily regime.
	375	[^42]: Shalshelet haQabbalah (Venice, 1587) f. 33b, MS Guenzberg 652 f. 76a.
	376	[^43]: ["Maimonides"](https://he.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1187235). he.chabad.org (in Hebrew). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210801223206/https://he.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1187235) from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
	377	[^44]: Karesh SE, Hurvitz MM (2005). [Encyclopedia of Judaism](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA305). [[Facts on File]]. p. 305\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-8160-5457-2. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211225011734/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA305) from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
	378	[^45]: Zimmels HJ (1997). [Ashkenazim and Sephardim: Their Relations, Differences, and Problems as Reflected in the Rabbinical Responsa](https://books.google.com/books?id=Svzf3uUCFToC&pg=PA283) (Revised ed.). Ktav Publishing House. p. 283\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-88125-491-4. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211225011743/https://books.google.com/books?id=Svzf3uUCFToC&pg=PA283) from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
	379	[^46]: [[Maimonides\|Kraemer 2008]], p. 486 n.6.
	380	[^47]: ["Iggerot HaRambam, Iggeret Teiman"](https://www.sefaria.org/Iggerot_HaRambam,_Iggeret_Teiman). sefaria.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210423164402/https://www.sefaria.org/Iggerot_HaRambam%2C_Iggeret_Teiman) from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
	381	[^48]: אגרות הרמב"ם מהדורת שילת
	382	[^49]: ["The Guide to the Perplexed"](http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3963/). World Digital Library. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130723013042/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3963/) from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
	383	[^50]: Klawans J (2009). Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism. [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 8\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-195-39584-6.
	384	[^51]: Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner
	385	[^52]: See, for example: [[Marc B. Shapiro]]. The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (2011). pp. 1–14.
	386	[^53]: e.g. ["Siddur Edot HaMizrach 2C, Additions for Shacharit: Thirteen Principles of Faith"](https://www.sefaria.org/Siddur_Edot_HaMizrach%2C_Additions_for_Shacharit%2C_Thirteen_Principles_of_Faith.3?ven=Sefaria_Community_Translation&lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en). sefaria.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201128013032/https://www.sefaria.org/Siddur_Edot_HaMizrach%2C_Additions_for_Shacharit%2C_Thirteen_Principles_of_Faith.3?ven=Sefaria_Community_Translation&lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en) from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
	387	[^54]: Landau R (1884). [Sefer Degel Mahaneh Reuven](https://hebrewbooks.org/3998) (in Hebrew). Chernovitsi. [[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [233297464](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233297464). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210805233252/https://hebrewbooks.org/3998) from the original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
	388	[^55]: Brown J (2008). "Rabbi Reuven Landau and the Jewish Reaction to Copernican Thought in Nineteenth Century Europe". The Torah U-Madda Journal. 15 (2008). Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, an affiliate of Yeshiva University: 112–142\. [[JSTOR (identifier)\|JSTOR]] [40914730](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914730).
	389	[^56]: Shapiro MB (1993). "Maimonides' Thirteen Principles: The Last Word in Jewish Theology?". The Torah U-Madda Journal. 4 (1993). Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, an affiliate of Yeshiva University: 187–242\. [[JSTOR (identifier)\|JSTOR]] [40914883](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914883).
	390	[^57]: Levy DB. ["Book Review: New Heavens and a New Earth: The Jewish Reception of Copernican Thought"](https://touroscholar.touro.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=tcl_pubs). touroscholar.touro.edu. 8(1) (2015). Journal of Jewish Identities: 218–220\. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200711211629/https://touroscholar.touro.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=tcl_pubs) from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
	391	[^58]: Brown J (2013). New Heavens and a New Earth: The Jewish Reception of Copernican Thought. Oxford University Press. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199754793.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199754793.001.0001). [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-19-975479-3.
	392	[^59]: Kraemer, 326-8
	393	[^60]: Kraemer, 66
	394	[^61]: Robinson, George. ["Maimonides' Conception of God/"](https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/maimonides-conception-of-god/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180501092948/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/maimonides-conception-of-god/) 1 May 2018 at the [[Wayback Machine]] My Jewish Learning. 30 April 2018.
	395	[^62]: Reuven Chaim Klein, "[Weaning Away from Idolatry: Maimonides on the Purpose of Ritual Sacrifices](https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/5/363/htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211029111645/https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/12/5/363/htm) 2021-10-29 at the [[Wayback Machine]]", Religions 12(5), 363.
	396	[^63]: Falcon T, [[David Blatner\|Blatner D]] (2019). Judaism for Dummies (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: [[Wiley (publisher)\|John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] pp. 25, 27, 30–31\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-119-64307-4. [[OCLC (identifier)\|OCLC]] [1120116712](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1120116712).
	397	[^64]: Telushkin, 29
	398	[^65]: Commentary on The Ethics of the Fathers 1:15. Qtd. in Telushkin, 115
	399	[^66]: Kraemer, 332-4
	400	[^67]: MT De'ot 6:1
	401	[^68]: Moses Maimonides (2007). The Guide to the Perplexed. BN Publishers.
	402	[^69]: Joseph Jacobs. ["Moses Ben Maimon"](http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=M&search=maimonides#ixzz1GVE5kJqV). Jewish Encyclopedia. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110523165222/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=M&search=Maimonides#ixzz1GVE5kJqV) from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
	403	[^70]: Shlomo Pines (2006). "Maimonides (1135–1204)". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 5: 647–654.
	404	[^71]: Isadore Twersky (2005). "Maimonides, Moses". Encyclopedia of Religion. 8: 5613–5618.
	405	[^72]: Joel E. Kramer, "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait," p. 45. In Kenneth Seeskin, ed. (September 2005). The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides. Cambridge University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-521-52578-7.
	406	[^73]: Rudavsky T (March 2010). Maimonidies. Singapore: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 10\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-4051-4898-6.
	407	[^74]: Fuss AM (1994). "The Study of Science and Philosophy Justified by Jewish Tradition". The Torah U-Madda Journal. 5: 101–114\. [[ISSN (identifier)\|ISSN]] [1050-4745](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1050-4745). [[JSTOR (identifier)\|JSTOR]] [40914819](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914819).
	408	[^75]: ["Guide for the Perplexed, on"](http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/gfp/gfp164.htm). Sacred-texts.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100414043124/http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/gfp/gfp164.htm) from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
	409	[^76]: ["Maimonides' Eight Levels of Charity"](https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/45907/jewish/Eight-Levels-of-Charity.htm). Retrieved 11 March 2023.
	410	[^77]: ["Maimonides Eight Degrees of Tzedakah"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181123182720/http://www.jtfn.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/maimonides_ladder_and_tzedakah_texts.pdf) (PDF). Jewish Teen Funders Network. Archived from [the original](http://www.jtfn.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/maimonides_ladder_and_tzedakah_texts.pdf) (PDF) on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
	411	[^78]: According to Maimonides, certain Jews in Yemen had sent to him a letter in the year 1189, evidently irritated as to why he had not mentioned the physical resurrection of the dead in his Hil. Teshuvah, chapter 8, and how some persons in Yemen had begun to instruct, based on Maimonides' teaching, that when the body dies, it will disintegrate and the soul will never return to such bodies after death. Maimonides denied that he ever insinuated such things, and reiterated that the body would indeed resurrect, but that the "world to come" was something different in nature. See: Maimonides' Ma'amar Teḥayyath Hamethim (Treatise on the Resurrection of the Dead), published in Book of Letters and Responsa (ספר אגרות ותשובות), Jerusalem 1978, p. 9 (Hebrew).
	412	[^79]: Kraemer, 422
	413	[^80]: This view is not always consistent throughout Maimonides' work; in Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah, chapters 2–4, Maimonides describes angels that are actually created beings.
	414	[^81]: Commentary on the Mishna, Avot 5:6
	415	[^82]: ["Mishneh Torah, Repentance 9:1"](https://www.sefaria.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Repentance.9.1?lang=bi&with=Commentary&lang2=en). sefaria.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210801074355/https://www.sefaria.org/Mishneh_Torah,_Repentance.9.1?lang=bi&with=Commentary&lang2=en) from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
	416	[^83]: Abraham Heschel, Maimonides (New York: Farrar Straus, 1982), Chapter 15, "Meditation on God," pp. 157–162.
	417	[^84]: "Within \[the Torah\] there is also another part which is called 'hidden' (mutsnaʿ), and this \[concerns\] the secrets (sodot) which the human intellect cannot attain, like the meanings of the statutes (ḥukim) and other hidden secrets. They can neither be attained through the intellect nor through sheer volition, but they are revealed before Him who created \[the Torah\]". (Abraham ben Asher, The Or ha-Sekhel)
	418	[^85]: Such as the first (religious) criticism of Kabbalah, Ari Nohem, by [[Leon Modena]] from 1639. In it, Modena urges a return to Maimonidean Aristotelianism. The Scandal of Kabbalah: Leon Modena, Jewish Mysticism, Early Modern Venice, Yaacob Dweck, Princeton University Press, 2011.
	419	[^86]: Menachem Kellner, Maimonides' Confrontation With Mysticism, Littman Library, 2006
	420	[^87]: Contemporary academic views in the study of Jewish mysticism, hold that 12–13th century Kabbalists wrote down and systemised their transmitted oral doctrines in oppositional response to Maimonidean rationalism. See e.g. Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives
	421	[^88]: The first comprehensive systemiser of Kabbalah, [[Moses ben Jacob Cordovero]], for example, was influenced by Maimonides. One example is his instruction to undercut any conception of a Kabbalistic idea after grasping it in the mind. One's intellect runs to God in learning the idea, then returns in qualified rejection of false spatial/temporal conceptions of the idea's truth, as the human mind can only think in material references. Cited in Louis Jacobs, The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Oxford University Press, 1995, entry on Cordovero.
	422	[^89]: Norman Lamm, The Religious Thought of Hasidism: Text and Commentary, Ktav Pub, 1999: Introduction to chapter on Faith/Reason has historical overview of religious reasons for opposition to Jewish philosophy, including the Ontological reason, one Medieval Kabbalist holding that "we begin where they end".
	423	[^90]: Fenton PB (1982). "A Meeting with Maimonides". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 45 (1): 1–4\. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1017/S0041977X0005429X](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X0005429X). [[PMID (identifier)\|PMID]] [11620561](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11620561).
	424	[^91]: Cohn G (21 December 2021). ["Maimonides the polymath"](https://www.thejc.com/opinion/maimonides-the-polymath-fpiytz0k). The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 27 November 2025.
	425	[^92]: Siegelbaum CB (2010). [Women at the Crossroads: A Woman's Perspective on the Weekly Torah Portion](https://books.google.com/books?id=4HVwBMI5zK0C). Chana Bracha Siegelbaum. p. 199\. [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-936068-09-8.
	426	[^93]: Last section of Maimonides' Introduction to Mishneh Torah
	427	[^94]: [[Joseph Karo\|Karo J]]. [Questions & Responsa Avqat Rokhel אבקת רוכל](https://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=636&pgnum=70) (in Hebrew). responsum # 32. Retrieved 31 August 2023. (first printed in [[Saloniki]] 1791)
	428	[^95]: Moses Maimonides, The Commandments, Neg. Comm. 290, at 269–71 (Charles B. Chavel trans., 1967).
	429	[^96]: Kehot Publication Society, Chabad.org.
	430	[^97]: [[Sarah Stroumsa]], Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, [[Princeton University Press]] 2011 [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-0-691-15252-3 p.25
	431	[^98]: Published [here](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?378); see discussion [here](https://forum.otzar.org/viewtopic.php?t=15854).
	432	[^99]: Maimonides (1963), Introduction, p. XIV
	433	[^100]: Maimonides (1963), Preface, p. VI
	434	[^101]: Maimonides (1963), Preface, p. VII
	435	[^102]: Volume 5 translated by Barzel (foreword by Rosner).
	436	[^103]: [Title page](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032218/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873411911_o.jpg), [TOC](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032227/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873411923_o.jpg).
	437	[^104]: ["כתבים רפואיים – ג (פירוש לפרקי אבוקראט) / משה בן מימון (רמב"ם) / ת"ש-תש"ב – אוצר החכמה"](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155175&lang=eng). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160621093314/http://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155175&lang=eng) from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
	438	[^105]: Maimonides. Medical Aphorisms (Treatises 1–5 6–9 10–15 16–21 22–25), [[Brigham Young University]], [[Provo, Utah\|Provo]] – [[Utah]]
	439	[^106]: ["כתבים רפואיים – ב (פרקי משה ברפואה) / משה בן מימון (רמב"ם) / ת"ש-תש"ב – אוצר החכמה"](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155174&lang=eng). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160621053920/http://www.otzar.org/wotzar/book.aspx?155174&lang=eng) from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
	440	[^107]: ["כתבים רפואיים – ד (ברפואת הטחורים) / משה בן מימון (רמב"ם) / ת"ש-תש"ב – אוצר החכמה"](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155176&lang=eng). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160621120415/http://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155176&lang=eng) from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
	441	[^108]: [Title page](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032324/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873411740_o.jpg), [TOC](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032309/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873411751_o.jpg).
	442	[^109]: ["כתבים רפואיים – א (הנהגת הבריאות) / משה בן מימון (רמב"ם) / ת"ש-תש"ב – אוצר החכמה"](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/Book.aspx?155173&lang=eng). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160629080558/http://www.otzar.org/wotzar/book.aspx?155173&lang=eng) from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
	443	[^110]: [Title page](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032348/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873411994_o.jpg), [TOC](https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032352/http://img.auctiva.com/imgdata/6/6/4/2/3/0/webimg/873412019_o.jpg).
	444	[^111]: ["Oath and Prayer of Maimonides"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080629222954/http://www.library.dal.ca/kellogg/Bioethics/codes/maimonides.htm). Library.dal.ca. Archived from [the original](http://www.library.dal.ca/kellogg/Bioethics/codes/maimonides.htm) on 29 June 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
	445	[^112]: Abraham Heschel, Maimonides. New York: Farrar Straus, 1982 p. 22 ("at sixteen")
	446	[^113]: Davidson, pp. 313 ff.
	447	[^114]: ["באור מלאכת ההגיון / משה בן מימון (רמב"ם) / תשנ"ז – אוצר החכמה"](https://www.otzar.org/wotzar/book.aspx?149870&lang=eng). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160621131149/http://www.otzar.org/wotzar/book.aspx?149870&lang=eng) from the original on 21 June 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
	448	[^115]: Isidore Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Yale Judaica Series, vol. XII (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980), passim, and especially Chapter VII, "Epilogue," pp. 515–38.
	449	[^116]: [[Stefan Reif\|Reif SC]] (1994). Jesus Pelaez del Rosal (ed.). "Review of 'Sobre la Vida y Obra de Maimonides'". [[Journal of Semitic Studies]]. 39 (1): 124. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1093/jss/XXXIX.1.123](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjss%2FXXXIX.1.123).
	450	[^117]: This is covered in all histories of the Jews. E.g., including such a brief overview as Cecil Roth, A History of the Jews, Revised Edition (New York: Schocken, 1970), pp. 175–179.
	451	[^118]: D.J. Silver, Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180–1240 (Leiden: Brill, 1965), is still the most detailed account.
	452	[^119]: David Hartman, Maimonides: Torah and Philosophic Quest (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1976), p. 98.
	453	[^120]: On the extensive philosophical aspects of Maimonides' halakhic works, see in particular Isidore Twersky's Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Yale Judaica Series, vol. XII (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980). Twersky devotes a major portion of this authoritative study to the philosophical aspects of the Mishneh Torah itself.
	454	[^121]: The Maimunist or Maimonidean controversy is covered in all histories of Jewish philosophy and general histories of the Jews. For an overview, with bibliographic references, see Idit Dobbs-Weinstein, "The Maimonidean Controversy," in History of Jewish Philosophy, Second Edition, edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 331–349. Also see Colette Sirat, A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 205–272.
	455	[^122]: Mercedes Rubio (2006). "Aquinas and Maimonides on the Divine Names". [Aquinas and Maimonides on the possibility of the knowledge of god](https://archive.org/details/aquinasmaimonide00rubi). [[Springer-Verlag]]. pp. 11, [65](https://archive.org/details/aquinasmaimonide00rubi/page/n71)–126, 211, 218. [[Doi (identifier)\|doi]]:[10.1007/1-4020-4747-9\_2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-4747-9_2). [[ISBN (identifier)\|ISBN]] 978-1-4020-4720-6.
	456	[^123]: Vivian McAlister, Maimonides's cooling period and organ retrieval ([[Canadian Journal of Surgery]] 2004; 47: 8 – 9)
	457	[^124]: ["NeoHasid.org \| Rambam and Gaia"](https://neohasid.org/torah/rambam/). neohasid.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131208213823/http://www.neohasid.org/torah/rambam/) from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
	458	[^125]: David Morris. ["Major Grant Awarded to Maimonides"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070730212312/http://www.floridajewishnews.com/site/a/major_grant_awarded_to_maimonides/). Florida Jewish Journal. Archived from [the original](http://www.floridajewishnews.com/site/a/major_grant_awarded_to_maimonides/) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
	459	[^126]: Eisner J (1 June 2000). ["Fear meets fellowship"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/58152263/the-philadelphia-inquirer/). [[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]. p. 25\. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201123194859/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/58152263/the-philadelphia-inquirer/) from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020 – via [[Newspapers.com]].
	460	[^127]: ["1 Israeli New Shekel (Rabbi Moses Maimonides) – exchange yours"](https://www.leftovercurrency.com/exchange/israeli-new-shekel/demonetized-israeli-new-shekel-banknotes/1-israeli-new-shekel-banknote-rabbi-moses-maimonides/). Leftover Currency.
	461	[^128]: Linzmayer O (2012). ["Israel"](http://www.banknotebook.com). The Banknote Book. San Francisco, CA: BanknoteNews.com. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120829063428/http://www.banknotebook.com/) from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
	462	[^129]: ["Harvard University Press: Maimonides after 800 Years: Essays on Maimonides and his Influence by Jay M. Harris"](http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HARMAM.html). Hup.harvard.edu. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090519030853/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HARMAM.html) from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
	463	[^130]: Shelly Paz (8 May 2008) [Tourism Ministry plans joint project with Morocco, Spain](https://web.archive.org/web/20110718101800/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1209627041328&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull). The Jerusalem Post
	464	[^131]: ["Maimonides"](https://www.imj.org.il/en/exhibitions/maimonides). The Israel Museum. Jerusalem. 2 October 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190520012052/https://www.imj.org.il/en/exhibitions/maimonides) from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.